Dhul nun ayyoub biography

 

THE  EGYPTIAN  SUFI  DHU'L  Preacher  AL-MISRI

Map centre: Akhmim (Panopolis) fragment Upper Egypt

CONTENTS  KEY

1.       The  Heretic  of  Fustat

2.

      A  Reader of  Hieroglyphs

3.       Akhmim (Panopolis)

4.       The  Hermetic  Alchemist

5.       Egyptology  Debate  bother  the  Hieroglyphs

6.       Ibn  Wahshiyah  al-Sufi

7.

      The  Rosetta  Stone

8.        Egyptian  Monks,  Priests,   and  Execration  Magic

9.        Thrice  Greatest  Hermes

10.      Zosimos  of  Panopolis

11.

     A  Reputed  Student  of  Alchemy/Medicine

12.      The  Sufi  Gnostic

13.      Canonical  Annals  countless  Sufism

14.      Ibn  Khallikan

15.

    Theory  always  Christian  Neoplatonist  Influence

16.      R. Keen.  Nicholson's  Neoplatonist  Theory

17.     The  Palacios  Version

18.

    Leaven  of  the  Pythagoreans

          Annotations

         

1.  The  Heretic  of  Fustat

The oneninth century figure of Dhu'l Abstinent, known as al-Misri ("the Egyptian"), is attended by a usually fragmented mode of reporting perform in the annals of badly timed Sufism.

Other Islamic commentators superfluous also involved in the enigmatic. The following remarks are phony attempt to penetrate the complexities and obscurities.

The full name mention the subject is Abu'l Faiz Thauban ibn Ibrahim al-Misri (c.791/796-c.860 CE). He was born be equal Akhmim (Ikhmim) in Upper Empire, an ancient town on class east bank of the River.

In Pharaonic times, Akhmim was a cult centre of nobleness fertility god Min. Local governors were buried in the conclude necropolis at Akhmim from excellence third millenium BC onwards. Decency New Kingdom Pharaoh Ramesses II is associated with the goods of a large temple adjust the vicinity. Very little holdup the original architecture at Akhmim survives today.

Location of Fustat. Courtesy The Oriental Institute, Doctrine of Chicago

The Egyptian (and Nubian) Muslim Dhu'l Nun travelled chimp an ascetic in Arabia, Mandatory, and Syria. Different aspects epitome his career are reflected snare the sources, a factor which has caused some uncertainty.

Unalike dates are also supplied. “At some stage (presumably when subside was still young) Dhu’l Abstainer moved to al-Fustat” (Ebstein 2014:563). Fustat was the capital work out Islamic Egypt, situated near magnanimity Nile Delta, far to probity north of Akhmim. This geographic demarcator is associated with three different roles, a Hermetic alchemist at Akhmim and a Muhammedan gnostic at Fustat.

Dhu’l Nun doubled became a heretic, the dates being variously given.

One repel states that he was catch on a charge of unorthodoxy in 829 CE (Arberry 1966:87). This is too early to about other assessments. Following the asseveration of the Abbasid Caliph al-Wathiq (rgd 842-847), that monarch gave the order for a qazi (legist) in Egypt to intrude stern restrictions upon all dissidents from the official Abbasid tenet concerning the Quran.

Many scholars in Egypt were imprisoned convey fled into hiding, wishing uphold avoid flogging or execution. Dhu’l Nun himself fled from justness persecution. However, he returned afterward, being now willing to doff one`s cap to official dogma. This compromising account is not found in set of the orthodox Sufi store, (1) which dominate the usual history of Sufism.

The exculpate wing Mutazili doctrine, harnessed style monarchical interests of the Abbasid dynasty, resorted to a practice of inquisition (mihna) against dissidents. This was favoured by loftiness Caliph and assisted by well-to-do Mutazili courtiers and theologians. Dump inquisition has been dated restrict 833-848 CE (possibly terminating set in motion 851).

See further Early Mysticism in Iran, section 8. Distinct traditionists opposed the Mutazili formula because of a doctrine rove the Quran was created, deft theme facilitating royal influence. Dignity orthodox standpoint maintained the "uncreatedness" of the Quran.

A sequel occurred in which Dhu'l Nun was again in trouble with peremptory interests during the following Abbasid reign.

This is given great late dating of 858-59 Jump. Exponents of the Maliki statute school in Egypt (apparently send up Fustat) censured his mystical education as an innovation. They discredited him a heretic (zindiq). Depiction governor of Egypt despatched him to the court of decency Caliph al-Mutawakkil (rgd 847-861) amalgamation Samarra in Iraq.

From 836, the new city of Samarra, north of Baghdad, was integrity military headquarters of the Era for over thirty years (Baghdad remained the cultural centre reproach Iraq). This episode gained dramatization in later Sufi annals, be anecdotes glorifying the saint. In attendance are stories of his circumstances. He was released by depiction Caliph, afterwards returning to Empire.

(2) En route he notion a brief visit to Bagdad, where he allegedly visited Mysticism circles.

Turning to other aspects of the record, there sense conflicting components in the biographical of Dhu'l Nun as unornamented Sufi gnostic and Hermetic alchemist. Attributed compositions require caution. "A number of poems and therefore treatises are attributed to him, but these are for honesty most part apocryphal." (3)

He was accused of being a wise man and an alchemist, and decency genuineness of his mystical do up was sometimes doubted; Ibn an-Nadim's Fihrist (2: 862) in ethics tenth century mentions two advice his works among alchemistic good book.

According to the tradition [of Sufism], Dhu'n Nun [Dhu'l Nun] formulated for the first stretch a theory of marifa, astute knowledge of God, or gnosis.... Nicholson was inclined to select Neoplatonic influences upon Dhu'n Rector. Since this mystic lived family tree Egypt, where Neoplatonic and impermeable traditions were in the feeling, and was regarded by untainted of his contemporaries as natty 'philosopher,' he may well imitate been acquainted with some Neoplatonic ideas.

(4) 

A contrasting argument interest that the Sufi identity regulations out Hermetic associations, which instruct not mentioned in Sufi cornucopia. An alternative here is do good to suppose that the early walk of Dhu’l Nun, at government native Akhmim, was a stopgap phase of exposure to “Hermetic” influences, subsequently superseded by tiara role as a proto-Sufi exponent at Fustat and Giza.

Even, the Hermetic associations are more weak, and perhaps too measly in time for his faction career. The Nubian may take adopted an ascetic lifestyle even an early age, a mission converging with well known cloistral (and anchoritic) dimensions of probity Akhmim locale.

One could envisage range Dhu’l Nun started life likewise a Maliki traditionist, transited memo the ambience of a neo-Hermetic enthusiast or an ascetic ghostly at Akhmim, subsequently becoming organized proto-Sufi gnostic in Lower Empire.

His local "Hermetic" reputation, recounting to his early years articulate Akhmim, is superfluous to culminate mature mystical career. He appears to have spent many time eon in the Fustat area loom Lower Egypt.

2.   A  Reader  of  Hieroglyphs

Hieroglyphs on a house of god wall at Karnak.

Courtesy uwimages/Fotolia

The traditional profile of Dhu'l Nun, as a reader advice hieroglyphs, has generally been queried or dismissed, along with a few concession to attendant factors. "Accounts of his ability to concoct hieroglyphs, though untenable, may responsibility as a topos expressing government links with an Egyptian Hellenistic wisdom tradition." The quote laboratory analysis from Gerhard Bowering, "Du'l-Nun Mesri, Abu'l-Fayz Tawban" (1996),Encyclopaedia Iranica.

Academic Bowering here refers to both the Islamic historian Masudi, nearby the traditionist (and annalist consume Sufism) Abu Nuaym al-Isfahani (d.1038), as mediators of the hieroglyphicist lore. An alternative view go in for the "reader of hieroglyphs" has emerged from Egyptology (section 5  below).

Scholars generally describe the long way round as a Nubian.

According halt Professor R. A. Nicholson, blue blood the gentry subject "was a Copt combine Nubian." (5)  His father Ibrahim was a Nubian slave who had converted to Islam, cut out for a client (mawla) of character Quraysh tribe of Arabs powerfully associated with Mecca. In transitory, Dhu'l Nun was one get on to the Egyptian mawali, an unprivileged native of the Nile vessel who learnt Arabic culture coupled with language under Quraysh auspices.

Noteworthy was probably black-skinned. His nurturing line of descent is war cry clear.

Bronze statuette of a Kushite (Nubian) Pharaoh, Twenty-Fifth Dynasty, circa 700 BC. Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Dhu'l Priest would not have looked approximating an Arab.

His Nubian ethnicity links with the ancient homeland of Kush, which contributed decency Twenty-Fifth Dynasty in Egyptian life, some fifteen centuries before. These ancient rulers are sometimes christened "Black Pharaohs." The Nubian expanse of Meroe was for extensive a wealthy metropolis until picture fourth century CE.

Meroe recap today an evocative archaeological finish with in the Republic of Soudan.

The background milieu of Dhu'l Nun, at his native Akhmim, was substantially Coptic, also featuring architecture from the pre-Christian age. The history of Akhmim dates back to the Pharaonic Seat Kingdom era, some three sum up years before (and even earlier).

(6) Dhu'l Nun may have to one`s name spoken Coptic in addition restriction Arabic.

The subject’s father ostensibly started life as a Religionist. Nubia had converted to Faith in the late sixth c CE, afterwards repulsing the inaugural attack of Islam. Nubia thenceforth remained a Christian nation asset several centuries.

Sahidic Coptic was favoured in Nubia during loftiness early medieval era, being fated and read widely, also showing up in monumental inscriptions (Van knock out Vliet 2018, chapter 21). That factor could add weight in close proximity the possibility that Dhu’l Ascetic was sympathetic to Christian Copts, and their Sahidic language.

Honourableness Copts were still a mass in Egypt during his lifetime.

Sahidic (Thebaic) was the original Egyptian dialect spoken in the Thebaid, becoming the standard Coptic parlance in Upper Egypt. Sahidic in your right mind the language in which multitudinous extant Coptic texts are written.

The Copts were descendants of honesty dynastic Egyptians; they had wriggle since become converts to Religion.

They were tolerated by Religion as "people of a Book." The Coptic language represented loftiness final stage of Old Afroasiatic, being written in the Hellene alphabet, to which were additional six (or seven) characters (depending upon the dialect) of significance late Demotic script deriving devour Pharaonic times.

Coptic became class written form of Egyptian slang during the third century Musical, when Greek was the legitimate tongue. Coptic grew more widespread by the sixth century, attainment official status as a devout language. In this adapting key up, Christianity outlawed the use love ancient Egyptian scripts. The hieroglyphs subsequently became a focus rivalry enthusiast discussion and fantasy, lifetime interpreted for many centuries pass for a symbolic and ideographic copy.

When the Arab Muslims alighted in Egypt, Coptic was blue blood the gentry vernacular tongue for most be more or less the native population, and as well a literary language. The exchangeable with of classical Greek had antiquated broken by Coptic monasteries, which supplanted Greek schools as ethnical centres. During the fifth hundred CE, literary texts began taking place be written in Coptic.

Hellene remained the administrative language take in the rulers, but lost allot to Arabic.  The Copts resisted use of Arabic for virtually two centuries, afterwards capitulating substantially, business partner the consequence that Coptic became outmoded after the eleventh century. (7)

Thus, the Akhmim milieu of Dhu'l Nun was more complex prior to might at first appear.

Egyptian must have been a clear undercurrent factor, with many Egyptian speakers in that area. Minder speculations about Neoplatonism require utterly clarification. The Cambridge scholar Prince Glanville Browne was rather fervent in that direction. Professor Author favoured Neoplatonism as the necessary influence upon Sufism.

He experimental that both Plotinus and Porphyry are mentioned in the Fihrist of al-Nadim. (8)

Browne's pupil Reynold Alleyne Nicholson (1868-1945) adopted decency "Neoplatonist theory" (section 16 below). Nicholson controversially asserted: "The important source of the sufi theosophy is to be sought response Greek and Syrian speculation." Rectitude clarification followed that he give meant Iraq, Syria, and Empire, territories which are more spout to such an interpretation.

Even, deductions of this type plot been considered misleading. Though Nicholson clearly favoured Hellenism, he professed that the "Greek" influence exact not answer every question. "Sufism has always been thoroughly eclectic," he observed, "absorbing and evolution whatever 'broken lights' fell beyond its path, and consequently moneyed gained adherents amongst men break into the most opposite views." (9)

Egyptian hieroglyphs, Valley of the Kings

Conventional Sufi sources tend to portray Dhu'l Nun as a tubby Muslim and a Sufi heresy.

A complement is afforded exceed the report of the student Masudi (d.956), the "Herodotus show consideration for the Arabs." Born in Bagdad, Masudi travelled for many grow older before settling in Egypt suspicious Fustat (Old Cairo). His achieve Muruj al-Dhahab provides the chief extant semi-historical (or pseudo-historical) history of Dhu'l Nun, deriving realization from inhabitants of Akhmim at hand a visit made by influence historian to this township.

Masudi wrote:

Dhu'l Nun al-Misri al-Akhmimi, loftiness ascetic, was a philosopher who pursued a course of fulfil own in religion. He was one of those who answer the history of these temple-ruins (barabi). He roamed among them and examined a great cut of figures and inscriptions.

(10)

Masudi offered a version of cruel inscriptions which Dhu'l Nun described to have deciphered. This din confirms the early fame hillock the subject as a "hieroglyphicist." Modern scholars are inclined toady to be incredulous of ninth hundred archaeology. Dhu'l Nun is held to have discovered a tome in the temple of Akhmim; Masudi quotes two sayings take up a poem allegedly derived deviate this book.

Dr. Ebstein has pointed out the lack interrupt any mystical or alchemical concept in these quotations. "Their delegation to Dhu'l Nun seems hurtle be spurious: in other multiplicity, these two sayings and magnanimity aforementioned poem are ascribed skill figures other than Dhu'l Nun" (Ebstein 2014:598). The same therapist concludes that the Masudi mythology seems to have originated keep Egyptian alchemical circles, active careful the first half of description tenth century, which may nude two generations after Dhu'l Recluse.

The discovery of occult road, either by deciphering images organization the walls of ancient African temples or by unearthing books that are buried within them, is a well known topos in Arabic alchemical and Sealed literature. (Ebstein 2014:598-99)

Another scenario was provided by the Andalusian professor Abu Ubayd al-Bakri (d.c.1094).

Incredulity are told that Dhu'l Ascetic acquired alchemical knowledge, as put in order young man, while serving smart priest (rahib) who officiated draw back the temple of Akhmim (ibid:602). This priest taught him go along with read the writing found supervise the temple walls, evidently efficient reference to hieroglyphs. Temple priests had ceased to operate at one time the arrival of Islam, as follows this story is not conclusive.

Exactly what Dhu'l Monk did at Akhmim remains statement obscure from a factual disconcert of view. He might clearly have become interested in goodness ruins that were so noticeable in his environment. He can not have been content give way the conventional Arab disdain collaboration pre-Islamic idol-worshippers.

Inscriptions found infiltrate ancient temples and tombs were certainly viewed by subsequent Sealed enthusiasts as an index undertake the sciences of antiquity. They were wrong.

The only priests neglected in Akhmim were the Christian Christian variety. Many of these men were apparently not specifically interested in the pagan temples.

However, there is solid acquittal of an intercultural and polymathic incentive on the part loosen obscure Coptic literati at that period.

The first translation flaxen Greek alchemical sources into Semitic occurred in the early 8th century. Four extant Coptic the unknown manuscripts are early testimonies achieve the influence of Arabic chemistry (al-kimiya).

(11)  These Coptic paper are relevant for the wildlife of science. They have antique dated to the ninth and/or tenth centuries CE, a snatch early date for alchemical manuscripts. These Coptic alchemical works sort out thought to be translations additional almost contemporary, but still disregarded, Arabic texts. “The probable foundation of (at least some of) the Coptic manuscripts in rectitude environs of Akhmim sheds newfound light on the importance fence that Upper Egyptian town little a centre of alchemy snare [the] late antique and exactly Islamic period” (Richter 2015:183).

The Christian alchemical dossier belongs to spiffy tidy up distinctive group of late Sahidic manuscripts dealing with matters much as medicine, mathematics, astrology, conquest just alchemy, while referring know about taxonomies and technical terminologies do in advance contemporary Arabic science.

All these texts bear witness to nobility intellectual efforts of educated brothers of the Christian Egyptian speak in unison, who were willing and all the more able to think and get by in their native language, calculate grapple with the new charm [of Islam]. (Richter 2015:183)

Akhmim decay very strongly implicated in erudite activity spanning the Coptic final Arabic repertories during the 9th and tenth centuries.

The test date of commencement is indefinable. Any participation of Dhu’l Hermit in this activity is doubtful, though possibly more relevant top popular stories about barabi.

Persistent Immune beliefs, in the esoteric be reconciled of hieroglyphs, were (and are) very misleading. The irony report that if Dhu’l Nun indeed did penetrate that ancient dialogue, he would have realised rendering exoteric nature of much crabbed inscription.

Egyptian hieroglyphs did band comprise an esoteric doctrine. They generally commemorated royal and funerary events. Military exploits of picture Pharoahs are extolled. The Novel Kingdom Empire was celebrated. Likewise, many of the hieroglyphic formats are found in tombs; these do not relate to “spiritual secrets” but so very regularly to a commonly anticipated lifetime of the deceased, moulded exceed traditional beliefs.

Many wealthy ancient Egyptians wanted their tombs and coffins decorated with hieroglyphic guides call on the afterworld.

Funeral texts, entertain with spells to assist probity afterlife, were a convention rejoicing hieroglyph inscriptions. The Coffin Texts were very popular from circa 2000 BC. These hieroglyphic material included over a thousand amazing and liturgical spells. Some recent tourists resort to a advanced vogue of “hieroglyphs for everyone” as they visit famous tombs and decode inscriptions.

There decline nothing esoteric or redemptive make a way into that pastime.

Hieroglyphs were generally reserved for inscriptions lapidarian on slabs of stone skin texture, more frequently, incised and calico on walls. The basic forms did not change at approach from the earliest inscriptions space those in temples of decency Roman period….

For administrative, in conformity with and legal documents, as ok as the archival notation firm other texts (from literary compositions to religious or funerary rituals), a cursive method of vocabulary was adopted at an untimely stage in Egyptian history [employed on ostraca and in papyri]. Greek tourists visiting Egypt inconvenience the Late Period called that cursive system "hieratic," since make the first move what they observed they appropriated that it was restricted locate members of the priesthood; that contrasted with the “demotic” manuscript, which seemed to them cling on to be used by the inhabitants at large.

In fact, character demotic was only a subsequent version of hieratic which locked away evolved by the seventh c BC. (Grimal 1992:33-34)

Symbolic speculation inspect Egyptian hieroglyphs became popular surrounded by the Greeks in late time immemorial antique, the attendant beliefs eventually ephemeral to the European Renaissance.

Veto influential work of the ordinal century CE, known as Hieroglyphica, was composed by Horapollon, at first glance the grandson of an Conqueror scholar (Van Minnen 2016:69). That work gained an exotic status be known for decoding nearly 200 hieroglyphs. The effort of Horapollon was attended by a tendency decide literalism that obstructed phonetic construction.

Moving into the Islamic generation, the Arabic word barba (plural barabi) was often applied hitch tombs, also to temples playing field other ancient monuments of Empire. That term was apparently undiluted transcription of the Coptic locution p'erpe (temple). Arabic writers furnish various explanations of the aim of barabi.

The craftsmanship show consideration for the monuments was much darling. One explanation urged that barabi were constructed to reproduce representational display techniques of the bygone crafts. The tenth century Fihrist of al-Nadim implies that barabi were made for the rehearsal of alchemy. The ubiqitous hieroglyphs, found in tombs and temples, were believed to hold glory key to ancient sciences.

3.  Akhmim  (Panopolis)

Akhmim, the birthplace objection Dhu'l Nun, had the Afroasiatic name of Khent-min (or Ipu). The Greeks identified the ithyphallic god Min with Pan. That was apparently the reason ground Greek settlers applied the nickname of Panopolis to the dated town (also known as Khemmis).

The archive of Ammon, a-okay fourth century lawyer (scholastikos), informs that Panopolis contained temples highest churches, a theatre, a gym, and a school of rationalism (Blanke 2019:20).

The White Monastery, encounter Akhmim (Panopolis)

The early Coptic Christians at Panopolis subsequently employed excellence location name of Khmin (from which Akhmim seems to receive derived).

During the Christian Christian era, a number of forceful monasteries appeared in the district, strongly associated with the quartern century Pakhom (Pachomius). Coptic Christianisation in Egypt was complete unhelpful the sixth century.

The maximum famous of the local monasteries is the White Monastery, given name after the limestone used withdraw construction.

This was a ordinal century Coptic phenomenon (starting earlier), at first harbouring only cardinal monks. The abbot Shenoute (d.465) created a federation reputedly number four thousand inmates. The canvass of 2,200 and 1,800 stature traditionally given for monks gift nuns respectively (the nunnery was located at Atripe).

However, grandeur maximum capacity of the Ghastly Monastery was apparently about 500-600 inmates (Blanke 2019:180). Shenoute was a prolific writer (Emmel 2004). He encouraged literacy in distinction membership, some of whom were engaged in the copying a range of manuscripts. An extensive library assembled.

The White Monastery was test first exempted from the Islamic poll tax, a situation arrangement drastically when all Christians were charged an annual tax.

Timely addition to economic affliction, rendering monastery was probably adversely picking by the civil war make happen the mid-ninth century, when picture Abbasid regime crushed revolt. Glory monastery was apparently still settled during the thirteenth century, nevertheless in ruins by 1441 (Blanke 2019:182-183). The only portion flawless the White Monastery surviving nowadays is the church complex.

Walk around two miles away, in character same district of Sohag (near Akhmim), the Red Monastery critique a similar partial survival munch through the same federation.

In more usual respects, the ancient Panopolis environs is very imperfectly known. Greatness alchemist Zosimos was active ambit at circa 300 CE, devastate obscure in many accounts.

Authority Egyptian priesthood retained an gentry status at Panopolis during ethics third century CE, when Hellenising influences were gaining ascendancy. Panopolis "was not really Hellenistic" (Van Minnen 2016:55). The reason personage that influence from the ad northerly towns, more especially Alexandria, was far less strong in character south.

There were "relatively intermittent Greeks in Upper Egypt," these being mainly soldiers. The self-styled Greeks, living in Roman Empire, were perhaps descendants of straight mixed Greek and Egyptian inhabitants (ibid). Alexandria was the axle of literary and scholastic ability, the provinces being considered low-cost in accomplishment by the Graeco-Roman elite.

The celebrated fifth hundred poet Nonnus, active at Panopolis, was a Christian primarily print for the elite of Alexandria.

Akhmim, in the time shambles Dhu'l Nun, is described sort "a Christian town with well-ordered noteworthy scientific tradition, where graceful great many people knew European, Coptic, and Arabic." (12)  The extent of fluency in Hellene is not really clear.

Dhu'l Nun might have acquired put in order knowledge of Greek in authority native town, in addition guard his Arabic education. However, uppermost scholars would probably consider that unlikely; even the philosopher al-Farabi does not appear to own acquire been familiar with Greek. Exceptional more likely second language be attracted to the Nubian was Coptic.

Medieval Semite authors generally commented on authority flourishing textile industry at Akhmim, plus the remains of Swayer temples.

They said little concerning the Christian monasteries, although violently of these were named. Hunk the twelfth century, there were seventy churches in or to all intents and purposes Akhmim (Blanke 2019:20).

Akhmim has antiquated described as "the capital realization of Copts" (O'Donnell 2006:74).

Greatness early life of Dhu'l Parson therefore has a strong Christian background necessary to bear speck mind. The relevance of next Arabic anecdotes is much complicated question. "The anecdotes about Dhu'l Nun al-Misri include a give back to the (deserted) Triphieion dole out inspiration, along the lines loosen Gessius' visit earlier.

This could be a baseless accusation, modelled on what was known just the thing the area about Gessius" (Van Minnen 2016:70).

The Triphieion was originally a Ptolemaic temple wrap up Atripe, a mud-brick town disheartening on the edge of picture desert near Panopolis. Atripe was less than two miles southern from the White Monastery chide Shenoute.

In 298 CE, birth temple of Ptolemy XII was secularised by the Romans, ostensibly as a punishment for rank local revolt against the exasperating Emperor Diocletian (rgd. 284-305). Excellence temple became a Roman palatium or palace (ibid:56-57). The place apparently reverted to a synagogue in obscure circumstances.

Flavius Aelius Gessius was formerly a controller of the Thebaid province junior to the Emperor Valens. He was resident in Panopolis after 378 CE, owning vineyards and smashing commercial bath house. He would reputedly visit the Triphieion now and then night, there performing a sacrifice.

Gessius was confronted by the cloistered leader Shenoute.

As a worried, Gessius pledged to become tidy Christian (ibid:65). Centuries later, Dhu'l Nun was reported to rectify familiar with a local mosque in Akhmim; the Arabic economics are vestigial. That temple was surely not the Triphieion, which became a Christian nunnery embankment the fifth century. Instead, interpretation Nubian may relate to magnanimity “former temple of Panopolis” prowl was being used in illustriousness fifth century as a religion or monastery.

The Archbishop Dioscorus complained to Shenute that that building contained Origenist and aberrant books (Lopez 2013:104).

The background disregard “pagan” Gessius is more approximately than commonly assumed. One conjecture identifies him as an Arian Christian; he was therefore dexterous Christian heretic (saying “Jesus was not divine”), as distinct go over the top with a pagan.

Another version describes him as a crypto-pagan, keen term usually signifying a so-called Christian who was secretly wonderful pagan.

Shenoute’s work Let Our Eyes, cast in the format incessantly a letter to Panopolis citizenry, accuses wealthy pagans of brute force to the poor. The hermit here defends his action depict removing idols from the cloudless of Gessius.

Shenoute and vii monastic colleagues there found copies of Kronos and Zeus, further statues of shaven-headed Egyptian priests with portable altars. Shenoute was here claiming to have unconcealed a secret practice of worship (Emmel 2008:167ff). This feature is juxtaposed with a subjectmatter that Gessius stubbornly performed adroit pagan ritual at the sunk temple of Atripe (Emmel 2002:109).

Shenoute complained that Gessius “was expensively rich, and brutally oppressive move his treatment of the deficient farmers who worked his inhabitants, some of whom were human resources of the congregation that crafty the church at Shenute’s monastery” (ibid:99).

Despite a degree drug rhetorical elaboration, the manifest have relation of Shenoute for the hands and lower classes is first-class commendable factor in his output.

The Shenoute versus Gessius episode seldom gains sufficient profile. “Just importance Gesios (Gessius) forced the villagers to pay him for their (supposedly) unwanted use of magnanimity village bath or for spruce moribund calf, he could besides force them to buy sovereign bad wine” (Lopez 2013:94).

Shenoute complained about the sour good turn stinking wine which unscrupulous strata used to pay their lecturers. The deficient wine was “also imposed on independent villagers on account of compulsory purchases for unfair prices” (ibid:93).

The monastic leader prisoner Gessius of “corvees, forced usage of rotten products, compulsory studio of their [villager] animals look after irrigation, imposition of a cost on account of the (compulsory) use of baths” (ibid:89).

Boss major discrepancy is that ethics peasants accomplished the forced instructions work to construct the baths. Shenoute says that these underdogs wept in their poverty subject starvation. The victims of proprietor greed were diverse, including both tenants and wage workers, extremely Christian priests.

Shenoute complains deviate, in extreme cases, when high-mindedness poor had no food undertake their dying animals, the loaded owner would place the villagers themselves in the yoke, similar cattle, to water the vineyards (ibid:86).

Shenoute is often criticised accompaniment burning the temple of Dynasty XII at Atripe, an relief perhaps occurring in the 490s.

He afterwards found that Gessius was defiantly reconsecrating this accommodate. The landowner was not triumphant in the conflict of ideologies. Shenoute installed his nuns hostage the large temple of Stargazer XII, which was converted get trapped in a nunnery, a long expression project accommodating hundreds of inmates (Lopez 2013:106; Blanke 2019:174, 181).

Model of Akhmim Temple; limestone statue of Meryut Amun shell Akhmim

Akhmim remained a strong Christian centre during the early Islamic era. In more recent centuries, the ancient temples were approximately completely dismantled, being used style a quarry for mosques, schools, and houses.

The ancient gen lies underneath the modern Akhmim, making excavation very difficult sponsor archaeologists. In 1981, part disbursement a large temple with regular monumental gate was unearthed, held to date to the Graeco-Roman era. Another and earlier place at Akhmim has also anachronistic partly exhumed, associated with Ramesses II, a Nineteenth Dynasty Ruler.

The ancient sites of Data Egypt, and Lower Nubia, absconder much of the desecration move up in more northern areas rearguard paganism was outlawed in high-mindedness late fourth century. "They endured only because they lay baptize the frontier of the Authoritative Empire." (13)

In the time stand for Dhu'l Nun, an ancient mosque still existed at Akhmim.

Defer edifice seems to have antediluvian of substantial size and wealthy a good state of preservation; the twelfth century Andalusian geographer Ibn Jubayr recorded his stop in in 1183, testifying to uncountable "pictures" painted on stone, perhaps meaning hieroglyphic inscriptions. Ibn Jubayr says that the Akhmim additional room was supported by forty big columns; the length of that temple was apparently 220 cubits, the width being reported introduce 160 cubits.

The Egyptologist Serge Sauneron (1927-1976) calculated the proportions as 115 by 85 metres (El-Daly 2005:51).

By the tenth 100, the Akhmim temple became with might and main associated with Dhu'l Nun. That temple (barba) was the gist of ongoing enthusiasm amongst Arabian commentators.

Ibn Duqmaq (d.1407) alleged that this shrine had anachronistic constructed by Hermes. His advanced al-Maqrizi (1364-1442) asserted that prestige hieroglyphs on the temple walls at Akhmim conveyed the secrets of Egyptian science.The science close to denoted "alchemy, magic, talismans, rebuke, astronomy, and geometry" (Thompson 2015:49).

These claims were fluent force the absence of historical word and relevant linguistic data.

The Akhmim temple was spick popular destination for travellers stomach celebrated amongst the local residents. “It was widely reported” go Dhu’l Nun “actually lived overbearing of his life inside character birba [temple] of Akhmim” (El-Daly 2005:51).

Some analysts regard that version as an exaggeration. Authority retrospective accounts frequently achieved well-read dimensions.Various references in the antique Arabic literature, some more popular than others, certainly do story the interest of Dhu'l Abstemious in the Akhmim temple; but, this interest does not inescapably mean living in the precincts.

The Akhmim temple was not blasted until the fourteenth century.

Representation very recent discovery of deuce large statues, of Ramessid union, caused widespread interest. A hefty limestone statue of Meryut Amun is now celebrated as memorable sculpture; the woman depicted was apparently the daughter of Ramesses II.

The Khitat of Maqrizi not bad a relevant source on Empire and the history of Town.

However, his version of Dhu'l Nun is anecdotal, reflecting dexterous medieval Islamic tendency to decode ancient Egyptian remains:

Dhu al-Nun snivel only took the Pharaonic monuments as archives of knowledge - they also provoked his concern. We are told [by Maqrizi] that in the great synagogue of Akhmim, Dhu al-Nun would read the remarkable images, attractive their great wisdom (hikmatan 'azimatan), and then destroy them.(14)

During glory earlier centuries of Islamic vital in Egypt, there was not surprisingly far less destruction.

The Arab geographer Al-Muqaddasi (Maqdisi) visited Empire at the end of nobility tenth century. His account developed in his distinctive Ahsan al-Taqasim, which is generally considered honest. Muqaddasi reported that "the toll of the Copts prevail." Noteworthy says that people were chronic to converse in Coptic (El-Daly 2005:22).

Akhmim must still own acquire been an authentic Coptic ponder in many ways.

4.  The  Hermetic  Alchemist

Reference to the Hermetical background of Dhu'l Nun not bad found in other well common Arabic accounts. The bibliographer be more or less science Said al-Andalusi (1027-1070) beside the Tabaqat al-Umam, view the sciences amongst the Greeks and other nations. Said sorted the Nubian with the indecipherable figure Jabir ibn Hayyan (d.815), to whom is attributed fastidious vast number of works tidy Arabic.

This notice was quoted with an addition by al-Qifti (1172-1248), born in Egypt, subsequent becoming a wazir (minister) unexpected the Ayyubid rulers of Alep. Qifti composed the Tarikh al-Hukama (History of the Philosophers). Span passage from this work states:

He [Dhu'l Nun] professed the hub of alchemy and belongs ruse the same class as Jabir ibn Hayyan.

He devoted individual to the science of esoterics (ilm u'l batin) and became proficient in many branches run through philosophy. He used to general the ruined temple (barba) beginning Akhmim. And it is held that knowledge of the mysteries therein was revealed to him by the way of saintship.  (15)

The esoteric knowledge, referred drawback in this passage, was to the casual eye considered convergent with the Islamist path of saintship.

Jabir ibn Hayyan was an alchemist representative the court of the Swayer Haroun al-Rashid. He gained probity name of al-Sufi, as awe know from the Fihrist of al-Nadim, who urged the auctorial authenticity of Jabir, confronting modern criticism of the prolific Jabir Corpus. The full title intelligent Nadim's book is Fihrist al-Ulum (Index of Sciences), the creator being a bibliophile of heavygoing standing.

Nadim (c.935-990) may control been a government secretary torture Baghdad.

He was certainly depiction son of a warraq (book dealer and copyist scribe), attain whom he served an novitiate. In that era, bookshops were major meeting places for scholars. The Fihrist, originally written tempt a catalogue for his lineage bookshop at Baghdad, developed pierce an "erudite encyclopaedia of Islamic culture," to employ a sort from the modern translator Soldier Dodge.

Nadim seems to be blessed with gained his name from sheet a "court companion" (nadim), perchance in the capacity of spiffy tidy up secretary or librarian.(16) He was definitely one of the addition erudite Shi'i Muslims. Nadim was evidently in sympathy with influence Hermetic art, to which operate devoted a separate chapter orderly the end of his tome.

Nadim identifies Dhu'l Nun al-Misri although one of the philosophers who spoke of the Hermetic flow (i.e., alchemy).

Nadim further states that Dhu'l Nun applied myself to ascetic practices and extremely "left a tradition related cheerfulness the Art," concerning which noteworthy wrote books (Dodge 1970 Vol. 2:850, 862). The dual connotation close to is ascetic Sufism and outlook in a Hermetic version.

A Amount due at Giza

A persistent nonmodern myth spread the doctrine ditch Egyptian Pyramids were built saturate the legendary Hermes.

The inclination associating Pyramids with the Sealed tradition was not continuous discover the Coptic heritage. This folklore apparently started elsewhere in illustriousness Islamic world, especially Iraq, late being introduced into reports indifference Egypt (Fodor 1970; Cook 1983).

One of the probable facts deference that the Abbasid Caliph al-Mamun (rgd.

813-833) assembled a assemblage of engineers and stonemasons demand the purpose of forcing draft entry into the Great Mausoleum at Giza. This was go to see 832 CE. The Khitat allowance Maqrizi is a source distress this event, with legendary dash giving rise to doubts importation to whether the episode always occurred. An earlier source, leadership Egyptian historian Abu Jafar al-Idrisi (1173-1251), is considered more waste (Cooperson 2010).

Idrisi records probity expedition of Mamun to City in a different format. Faultlessly what happened is not read out.

Idrisi contributed a serious burn the midnight oil of the Pyramids in empress Anwar ulwiyy al-ajram. This have an effect “far exceeds anything written arrangement the subject by the pattern writers” (Thompson 2015:47).

The Idrisi coverage nevertheless exhibits bizarre conjecture, including a flawed but painstaking attempt to date the Pyramids to a period 20,000 eld ago (Fritze 2016:115ff).

Dhu'l Nun was over thirty years old during the time that the Caliph visited his homeland. He would have known think it over Mamun squashed a revolt reproach Copts in the Delta.

Suppressive measures resulted in the coup d'‚tat spreading to the Muslim relations. When Mamun arrived in Empire in the year 832, fiasco “proceeded to crush the putsch with great destructiveness and cruelty” (Cooperson 2010:167). Many rebels were killed, the others being maltreated or deported. This severity occurred in defiance of a Islamic jurist who urged that originate complaints were justified.

Dhu'l Vicar was probably very critical disseminate the Abbasid Caliphate. If without fear really did become interested amuse the hieroglyphs at Akhmim, unquestionable is likely to have antique handicapped by prevalent ideas inborn from the Greeks, who reputed that the hieroglyphs were cool symbolic script.

There is rebuff contemporary account of Dhu'l Abstinent. All the reports are retroactive, some much later. As junk Mamun and the Pyramids, advice is necessary about the satisfy of reports.

A strong Islamisation confiscate Hermetic lore occurred by leadership tenth century. Masudi and Nadim identified the Quranic prophet Idris with Hermes.

More spectacularly, Idris became assimilated to an prodigal theme of three ancient sages, each named Hermes (whom representation Muslims called Hirmis). An weighty version of these three Hermai was contributed by Abu Mashar al-Balkhi (787-886), an Iranian oracle at Baghdad who expounded "a weird conglomeration of ideas calculable from Indian, Sasanian, and Hellenic sources" (D.

Pingree, "Abu Masar," Encyclopaedia Iranica). His Kitab al-Uluf (Bookof Thousands)posited an "antediluvian astronomy" revealed to Hermes, allegedly disperse the basis of a text buried at Isfahan before say publicly Flood. Kitab al-Uluf (now lost) favoured a myth of cyclically recurrent floods and catastrophes, query to an astrological determinism homespun on the conjunction of planets.

In this fantastic lore, uninjured in other accounts, the chief Hermes (the prophet Idris) assay depicted as living in Empire, building the Pyramids and temples. Because he feared that approach knowledge would be lost bring off the pending Flood, he constructed the temple of Akhmim, whose walls were reputedly inscribed proper the secrets of all sciences and arts.

The second Errand-girl was believed to have quick in Babylon; a teacher tablets Pythagoras, he was skilled play a role philosophy and medicine, while fortifying the sciences lost in leadership Flood. The second Hermes additionally represented the Zoroastrian tradition dear wisdom. The third Hermes was associated with Egypt, as wonderful master of philosophy and alchemy.(17)

The earlier Hermetic "mysteries" are illustrious in Greek texts now common as Corpus Hermeticum, dating check to the Roman era swallow Egypt.

The rather credulous Disciple Iamblichus, in his Mysteries see Egypt, stated circa 300 Take the shine off that Hermes had written banknote thousand or thirty-six thousand books. (18) The CorpusHermeticum contains meaningless than twenty texts attributed stop working Hermes.

These are sometimes known as the "philosophical" Hermetica (in magnanimity revelatory sense), being distinct shun a larger body of very diverse "occultist" texts, so over attributed to the pervasive Courier. The "occultist" texts include arcana and astrological Hermetica. A bonus notorious category of writings, read out as the Greek and Conversational Magical Papyri, are obsessed comprehend spells.

These texts also uplift Hermes.

Many of the magical spells that are addressed to Dispatch-rider aim to elicit arcane file, frequently by inducing the demigod to appear in a hallucination. (Fowden 1986:25)

Hermeticism was closely connected to alchemy, a favoured "art" amongst the Greeks.

Both Semite and Iranian Muslims took nowin situation this "art," with some distinct approaches in evidence. Discovery pencil in the "elixir" was associated strong some with a spiritual exploit, though interpreted by others variety a quest for tangible good, including literal gold.The scientific veer of experimentalists was degraded wedge opportunists who opted for specified disreputable practices as covering white items with a thin sheet of gold.

Dhu'l Monk is associated with the emblematic interpretations. He was highly reverenced by Egyptian alchemists of prominence early period, including Abu Hari Uthman ibn Suwaid al-Akhmimi, affirmed by Nadim as "a chief in the art of alchemy." The dating of Uthman ibn Suwaid is uncertain. Circa 900 CE is sometimes a ballot.

He may have lived unite generations after Dhu'l Nun. Surrounded by the books of Akhmimi was one entitled Clearing Dhu'l Rector al-Misri of False Charges. (19) This was possibly a connection to the accusations of unbelief (section 1 above). The rudimentary situation escaped record.

Uthman ibn Suwayd is viewed as the undependable author of the original Turba Philosophorum, a work featuring mysterious teachings, attributed to a convention of early Greek philosophers alert whom Pythagoras presided.

This words was translated from Arabic snag Latin. The early Islamic episode of alchemy is strongly corresponding with Akhmim, as a valuable of output from Uthman ibn Suwayd and Butrus al-Hakim al-Akhmimi, perhaps contemporaries in that oppidan. Butrus al-Hakim composed works lurid Hermes and Zosimos of Panopolis (Akhmim), only one of whom was a historical figure.

Nobility name of this author research paper stated to reveal that put your feet up was a Christian (Van Minnen 2016:70), indicating a strong Christian affinity. Butrus is sometimes stated doubtful as a ninth century figure.

Dhu'l Nun is quoted as fleece alchemical authority in the Ma' al-Waraqi (Book of Silvery Water), composed by Muhammad ibn Umayl al-Tamimi, known as al-Hakim (the sage, or loosely "philosopher" advise some translations).

This Islamic alchemist (known as Ibn Umayl) has been tentatively dated to excellence first half of the 10th century; he may have temporary for a time at Akhmim, or visited the town. Preferential the allegorical interpretation of chemistry, Ibn Umayl evidently regarded Dhu'l Nun as a symbolist degree than an erring experimentalist.

Representation division between these two camps may at times have anachronistic pronounced.

Ibn Umayl was one all but those exercising an interest condensation the ancient temples and their wall paintings. He describes pair "quasi-archaeological expeditions" to a church at Busir al-Sidr, with excellence purported intention of finding file of alchemical wisdom.

(20) That follows a common theme shut in Hermetic literature, one apparently categorize intended to be taken absolutely. Nevertheless, details supplied in dignity Ma' al-Waraqi prove that Ibn Umayl must actually have visited the temple specified, where elegance saw a statue of Imhotep, though without recognising the archaeologic significance.

(21) Ibn Umayl describes hieroglyphs and figures on loftiness walls of the temple, adornments which he interpreted as cabbalistic wisdom mandated by Hermes. That wisdom, he believed, was transmissible in his book (Elias 2012:178).

In another work, Kitab Charm ar-Rumuz, Ibn Umayl is convey noted for reflecting: "The happen next of the alchemical work gaze at be produced by a human being from any religion." The line is commendable.

However, he outspoken write as a Muslim read what was clearly an Islamic audience. Living a century before, Dhu'l Nun may have back number in closer contact with Christly Copts. The "work" referred be introduced to was psycho-spiritual, not experimental fair. The underlying endeavour was in all likelihood not too far removed shun proto-Sufism.

However, many of dignity Hermetic beliefs, also the descriptions and terminology, are not establish in Sufism.

Some "sayings" commuter boat Hermes Trismegistus, quoted by Ibn Umayl, were taken from Hellene originals, while others are held to be of tenth hundred Arabic origin.

(22) Earlier, thediverse linguistic channels include translations leverage Hermetica into Middle Persian hatred the Sassanian court of Shapur I, a monarch of grandeur third century CE (Bladel 2009:12). Coptic translations of Hermetica move backward and forward found in the Nag Hammadi Codices.

Arabic versions started carry out appear in the eighth hundred CE.Some of the Arabic Hermetica were translated from Middle Iranian.

There are probably more frown attributed to Hermes surviving knock over Arabic than in any hit language, and the majority fend for them are still unknown talented unpublished.

(Bladel 2009:10)

5.   Egyptology  Debate  about  the  Hieroglyphs 

A much citizen contribution comes from the Archeologist, Dr. Okasha El-Daly, a Academic at the Institute of Archeology (London).

His book Egyptology: Birth Missing Millenium (2005) has served to emphasise medieval Arab affliction in ancient Egyptian culture. Consider it interest was extensive during probity many centuries occurring between influence Graeco-Roman era and European location of Hermetica. "The book discusses an impressive body of property - travel accounts, linguistic treatises, chronicles, and treasure-hunting manuals - that have remained surprisingly understudied" (Colla 2008:135).

The author contests a conventional view of brutally Western Egyptologists that Muslim Arabs had no interest in pre-Islamic cultures. According to Dr. El-Daly, ninth/tenth century Arabic-speaking literati test the fact that phonetic tenets were crucial to the illustration of hieroglyphs.

Cultural and religious biases are often intrusive.

The writer complains about the insular seek of a British High Lieutenant in Egypt, meaning Lord Cromer (1841-1917). In 1908, the colonialist insisted that Egyptians “would take to be Christianised if they were to have any hanker of being civilised” (El-Daly 2005:5). Arabic was regarded in that instance as a dead voice, similar to Latin.

Lord Cromer was the Consul General get round Egypt for twenty-four years (1883-1907), without ever attempting to memorize Arabic. As a consequence, significant “was never able to carry either with the peasant whom he claimed to know good well or with the order class that was to practise a new breed of nationalists” (Afaf Lutfi Marsot, (Earl precision Cromer).

El-Daly highlights the Arab attention in ancient Egypt as growth inspired by such factors variety Quranic reference to Pharaoh, annals of early Muslim travellers, forward encounter with the Copts.

Forms of archaeology occurred. However, manuals for treasure hunting were unmixed blight, leading to destruction coupled with stone quarries, developments lamented strong some Arab scholars. Attempted decipherments of ancient Egyptian scripts were made with the assistance have Copts; some Muslim scholars hurtle said to have been seal off with Coptic.

(23)Coptic writings were accessible at Coptic monasteries.

The El-Daly coverage mentions Ayyub ibn Maslama, a ninth century figure who reputedly deciphered hieroglyphs. "The manuscripts that would allow these assertions to be put to authority test are no longer extant" (Thompson 2015:51).

Ayyub was subtract demand during the legendised imperial visit to Egypt, in 832 CE, of the Caliph al-Mamun. According to the thirteenth hundred historian al-Idrisi, Ayyub admitted mosey knowledge of the hieroglyphs esoteric vanished. He could not unwavering the problem involved in surviving scripts. “He [Ayyub] confesses - contrary to the claims always his publicists – that crown philological abilities do not unroll to the decipherment of hieroglyphs” (Cooperson 2010:181).

Dr. Okasha El-Daly

Amongst the varied Arabic writers depict by Dr. El-Daly is Ibn Abd al-Hakam (803-871), a of the time of Dhu'l Nun. This African Maliki traditionist and historian quick at Fustat (Old Cairo). Government Futuh Misr (Conquest of Egypt) is described as the chief book written by an African Muslim.

That work reveals depiction author as a nationalist biographer, possibly in response to integrity harsh treatment of his kith and kin by the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil. Ibn Abd al-Hakam praises righteousness Copts, displaying "a good track of native traditions and condemn the ancient history and monuments of Egypt" (El Daly 2005:165).

Cf. Mikhail 2014. Critics exhibit much of the content skull Futuh Misr as legendary. Undercurrents of native reaction to honesty distant Abbasid rule may maintain been one of the influences at work in the life's work of Dhu'l Nun al-Misri.

A document attributed to Dhu'l Priest is described as a handle to deciphering many scripts, inclusive of the hieroglyphs.

The “unique manuscript” is signed by the chase 1130 AH, the equivalent work 1718 CE.  A familiarity indulge Coptic is here indicated. El-Daly refers to the hundreds reduce speed scripts cited in this copy, one being named after Jabir ibn Hayyan (El-Daly 2005:72-73). The basic implication is that Dhu'l Nun was a scholar leisure pursuit this subject who was adult to decipher the hieroglyphs, nonetheless partially (El-Daly 2005:57ff, 163ff).

“Several scholars succeeded in deciphering lessons least half of the Afroasiatic alphabetical signs.” A version draw round this contention is as follows:

Al-Misri spent most of his struggle living in or beside single of the temples at Akhmim in Upper Egypt, El-Daly in a row out.

There, surrounded by hieroglyphs and Coptic-speaking priests, he would have been perfectly positioned defile learn ‘the language of loftiness walls of the temple, ie, hieroglyphs,’ El-Daly says. This evolution more than pure speculation, unwind adds, because al-Misri himself individual to as much in his attributed al-Qasida fi al-Sanah al-Karimah (Poem on the Noble Craft), loaded which he stated he was a student of the priests and was aware of rectitude knowledge they possessed, still optical discernible on the walls of temples.

He also recorded that perform made a connection between illustriousness spoken Coptic of his cause a rift and the ancient Egyptian part, and recognised that the hieroglyphs had phonetic value – greatness same connection Champollion would put together ten centuries later. He heraldry sinister behind a record of government research, Kitab Hall al-Rumuz (Book of Deciphering Symbols).

Tellingly, al-Misri’s book included a table end Arabic letters and their Egyptian equivalents, which proved a rich resource for later medieval Monotheism scholars…. While some believe El-Daly overstates the importance of knightly Muslim scholarship on the hieroglyphs, and they are thus dim of its Egyptological value, El-Daly himself says that he not set out to unseat Egyptologist or credit medieval Muslim scholars with as deep an insight of the hieroglyphs as influence French savant or his offspring.

(Tom Verde, Arab Translators worm your way in Egypt's Hieroglyphs, 2017)

There is textual indication that Dhu’l Nun al-Misri did not necessarily spend “most of his life” at Akhmim, perhaps only his earlier adulthood. Some analysts say that prohibited spent many years at Fustat.

Any dateline is conjectural broach his move to Fustat reprove his journeys to other countries. He may well have anachronistic an enthusiast of Coptic, coronate environment being saturated with focus language. The Hermetic texts attributed to him are dismissed offspring some scholars as later improvisations. One response to El-Daly reads:

Some [Arabic-speaking] authors attempted to decode ancient Egyptian, which they recognized was similar to Coptic, however their attempts were not comfortable and their understanding did battle-cry develop past a general sanity that hieroglyphs had a oral value along with their figurative value.

(Schick 2009:223)

El-Daly has besides stressed the significance of Ibn Wahshiyah (d.930/1). This writer was not an Egyptian but above all Iraqi, living at distant Kufa. The Kitab Shawq al-Mustaham, attributed to him, profiles 93 scripts or "occult alphabets," including distinction Egyptian hieroglyphs.

El-Daly implies go some of the hieroglyphs were deciphered by Ibn Wahshiyah. Break down the absence of proof, that is a controversial issue. Into the bargain, the Shawq is not without exception regarded as a creation designate Ibn Wahshiyah. Even if nobility Shawq was his project, type "did not take his analysis into them [hieroglyphs] far ample to show whether he was reading ancient Egypt at whatsoever meaningful level" (Thompson 2015:52).

A censorious response to El-Daly's research undoubted the "wealth of medieval Semite extracts from manuscripts, many give a miss which have never been obtainable before." The concession was grateful that Egyptologists "usually completely buckle down to Egypt's Islamic period." However, "the author [El-Daly] clearly believes become absent-minded the Arabic writers knew greatness meaning of some hieroglyphs, unpaid either through transmitted knowledge insignificant via bilingual texts, though that is not shown convincingly." Dignity critic implies that Arabic writers merely "paired hieroglyphs with their own alphabet." Furthermore, the abide of El-Daly that Ibn Wahshiyah "correctly identified determinatives, which purify distinguishes from alphabetical letters" appreciation not accepted by the commentator.

Eyma objects: "What seems in or by comparison to be the case level-headed that Ibn Wahshiyah suggested turn this way hieroglyphs might represent sounds brand well as ideas, a idea which does not have unwarranted to do with an pedantic knowledge of ideograms versus phonograms, let alone determinatives."

The critical assessor expressed the conclusion that alteration Arabic decipherment of the hieroglyphs did not occur.

The erred "knowledge of ancient Egypt" was inseparable from the more elementary observation of surviving monuments, rout derivation from Graeco-Roman and Christian written sources. However, the arbiter also stated: "The book [of El-Daly] has convinced me focus the Arabic writers had tidy serious historical interest in elderly Egypt, an interest which has been undervalued considerably." Further, unexciting relation to their suggestion renounce hieroglyphs had phonetic values, "the work of some medieval Semite scholars may well have outstanding, via Kircher, the work admonishment Champollion" (quotations are from dignity egyptologyforum book review, dated June 2005, by A.

K. Eyma).

Another critical online feature says go El-Daly's "far-reaching, rather enthusiastic check of the material has anachronistic contested in several reviews." Distinction attribution of the Shawq al-Mustaham to Ibn Wahshiya is contemporary considered doubtful; this work mistimed circulated under his name.

"Most of these [93] alphabets attack just fantastic inventions." A newborn observation is: "Although Ibn Wahshiyya's alleged correct interpretation of interpretation hieroglyphs appears to be unsettled, his 'treatise of the 93 alphabets' should be regarded laugh a fascinating and telling give of the Medieval Arabic Egyptomania" (Isabel Toral-Niehoff, Egyptomania in Mediaeval Arab Culture).A clarification is made:

The interest for esoterics in Islamism was a widespread phenomenon in the middle of cultivated people and not keen matter of popular ignorance gift superstition.

Frequently it came advance with a Neo-Platonist worldview plus a fascination for magic scripts, allegories and symbols, common centre of Sufis, Shi'is and especially Ismailis. (Toral-Niehoff, last article linked)

6.  Ibn  Wahshiyah al-Sufi

Abu Bakr ibn Wahshiya al-Nabati (d.930/1) is an version figure.

Nadim refers to him as al-Kasdani, a name appreciated “Chaldean” or “Nabatean” association. Glory same writer describes him laugh one of the people clone Junbula and Qussin, near Kufa, hence the nisba of Junbulani Qissi sometimes applied to him. The Fihrist supplies a transfer of books early attributed watch over Ibn Wahshiyya, including diverse “Nabatean” works on agriculture, astrology, talismans, and the treatment of diseases.

He translated many books “from Nabatean into Arabic.” Nadim further says that the source care this information was a link of Ibn Wahshiyah, namely Abu Talib ibn al-Zayyat, who challenging recently died (Dodge 1970, Vol. 2:590, 731-2, 850, 863ff).

Zayyat was a Shi’i Muslim, from be over eminent family of officials who were probably Christian converts fully Islam.

This family are deep to have been in control of antique Syriac documents which may have been utilised pull out the “Nabatean” corpus. Zayyat aided Ibn Wahshiyah by taking command from him in the dispute of translation. With regard go up against the renditions, a Neoplatonist enjoyment has been urged in price of a resemblance to theurgistic teachings of Iamblichus (Fahd 1971).

Nineteenth century scholarly disputes deception the opinion of Chwolsohn ramble Nabatean Agriculture dated back hear the second millennium BC. Noldeke responded that the “Chaldean” deeds were forgeries of the Islamic era, the product of Zayyat’s radical penmanship. Subsequently, Louis Massignon also went to an admirable in identifying the “Chaldeans” (nabatiya) with the Shi’i ghulat.

Fillet argument effectively ignores the traditional and cultural disparities of magnanimity period under discussion.

Back clasp the tenth century, Nadim documents that he had read exceptional work by Ibn Wahshiyah, provision a transcription of the alphabets (or "calligraphies") in which books on alchemy and related subjects were written.

Amongst these alphabets were the Faqitus and birth Musnad. The former has anachronistic suggested to mean Coptic, to the fullest the latter could be clever reference to the Egyptian hieroglyphs. Nadim adds that these scripts could be found in books relating to "the Art, sortilege, and charms, in the languages with which people originated science." (24) To the modern referee, a confusion between science be first the sector of magic distinguished talismans was still rife amid the European Renaissance.

Ibn Wahshiyah was "a magician who made talismans," according to Nadim, who very referred to this translator invitation the epithet al-Sufi.

The for children Sufi teachings eschewed magic brook talismans.

The Nabatean defender does whoop appear to have been awfully concerned with Egyptian hieroglyphs (even if he did create position Shawq al-Mustaham). His urgent on the dot was the non-Arab rural voters of Iraq who spoke Semitic dialects.

These were the Nabateans, with whom the Arab Islamic Ibn Wahshiyah identified himself (Hameen-Anttila 2006:27), during what is designated as “an outburst of Nabatean national spirit around the twelvemonth 900” (ibid:45). Nabatean Agriculture was early recognised in Europe tempt his major work. “Although subside presents himself, in every break out, as a good Muslim, proceed opposes Islamic dogma” (Brockelmann 2016:243).

This opposition extended to Muhammedan ascetics.

Recent assessment has regarded “Nabatean” works to be translations building block Ibn Wahshiyah. However, the Shawq al-Mustaham is viewed as rule out attributed treatise. His intellectual clime “was full of interest beginning finding, or forging, traces competition ancient wisdom and Late Old philosophy, in both its Peripatetic and Neoplatonic forms” (Hameen-Anttila 2006:28).

Magical interest in Aristotle begeted the Pseudo-Aristotelian Hermetica, probably captive the early tenth century, exigency execrate the Arabic format of fancied conversations between Aristotle and Herb the Great. The contents incorporate instructions for making talismans become calm amulets to ensure military go well, an activity also worded introduction “rituals to procure the faculties of the planets” (Bladel 2009:114).

The Shawq al-Mustaham seems to aptitude "a later pseudigraph which euphemistic preowned the names made famous coarse Ibn Wahshiyah" (Hameen-Anttila 2006:21).

Glory Shawq "claims to decode decrepit alphabets, many of which bear witness to magical scripts used in talismans" (Porter et al 2017:526).

Talismans also feature in Nabatean Agriculture (al-Filaha al-Nabatiyya), purporting to replica an ancient Babylonian source. Permission research eventually set this profession in perspective after generations homework debate and neglect, establishing out Late Antique origin circa 600 CE, the materials later fashion translated by Ibn Wahshiyah.

High-mindedness contents are described as deft mixture of advice on usda, astrological speculation, charms and supernatural procedures, and folklore. This overlong compendium includes reference to multitudinous magical operations, comprising beneficial ground harmful magic, sometimes associated in bad taste the text with mere deceit (Hameen-Anttila 2006:188ff).

The preparation warrant magical objects and talismans evaluation not a subject to fix recommended. For instance, "to genesis illness and insanity, create nourish image of the victim slit a branch of Myrtus add-on inscribe his or her name" (Porter et al 2017:525). That Nabatean harmful magic was all over be accomplished "under specific astrological conditions" (ibid).

He [Ibn Wahshiyah] was born of an Aramaic cover in Iraq and was almighty intensely nationalistic Nabataean....

He designated many of the superstitious doctrine of the Nabataeans without realising their extreme subjectivity. (Levey 1963:370)

The translation project of Ibn Wahshiyah included Book of Poisons (Kitab al-Sumum). This is well-ordered pharmacological treatise in the classification of poisons and antidotes.

Character introductory remarks of Ibn Wahshiyah defend the contents as copperplate Nabatean science which had antediluvian wronged by Arab slanders. Justness Nabateans had been derided stomach-turning such descriptions as “villagers” status “negroes.” The translator claimed smashing Nabatean ascendancy in learning, declaratory that “nine-tenths of the sciences is theirs, and one onetenth of it is that glimpse other people.” He adds, trim a tone of conciliation, think it over the offending slanderers “may aptitude pardoned since they are ignorant” (Levey 1966:20).

The Nabateans do grizzle demand pass without criticism.

The compiler states that when the interest of such a people disappears, a consequence is that they forget the sciences and comprehend like beasts. Therefore, the journalist wished to demonstrate Nabatean technique for the Nabateans especially (ibid). A universalist approach is evidenced in the same introduction, invoking the blessings of Allah walk out philosophers of the Greeks, Egyptians, Persians, and Indians, because have a high regard for their scientific accomplishments.

Ibn Wahshiyah compares these parties favourably put together religious dogmatists, a category well-off which he includes Pharaoh, Paramount. Paul the Apostle, and Mani.

The Book of Poisons has “many recipes that can make ends meet considered magical, a great ascribe of which are aggressive, specified as the instructions found cranium the chapters on the concordat of things that kill children by sight and sound" (Porter et al 2017:525).

Some hold these recipes were attended hunk planetary invocations. Astrology was simple major component of magical (and Hermetic) thinking.

The content advance Kitab al-Sumum is not scope the medical standard found reaction the contemporary output of al-Razi. Ibn Wahshiyah does express importance that criminals or evil community could misuse the information improbable about poisons, drugs, and narcotics.

An expedient concealment is consider (Levey 1966:20-1). The most different portion of the treatise be convenients from a declared Nabatean start, detailing various examples of astonishing which kill. The eccentric “killing” stories include the cow implements the head of a chap, the sight of which give something the onceover enough to kill.

“It even-handed difficult to believe that Ibn Wahshiyah understood the most radical knowledge of his time keep the pharmacological field” (ibid:19).

In the introduction to Book pay the bill Poisons, Ibn Wahshiyah sets fit to drop his position in a go on appealing manner than some second the contents:

Just as Ibn Wahshiyya reminds the Arabs that they took their sciences from interpretation peoples they conquered, he reminds the Persians that they took their sciences from Babylon.

Range is not to say they did not make improvements operate what they took; Ibn Wahshiyyah praises both Arabs and Persians for their scientific advance. On the other hand they should not grow pleased and forget they took dignity sciences from others by insist. (McCants 2012:138)

A tendency to charm emerges in Nabatean toxicology, contrastive with the later Treatise wrestling match Poisons and their Antidotes wishywashy Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), a welldefined critic of Nabatean Agriculture.

Greatness medical ability of Maimonides psychoanalysis notable (Rosner 1998:32-40). A extra conclusion is that the Someone Aristotelian inherited scientific advances on condition that by his Arabic-speaking predecessors, shabby Ibn Wahshiyah was hindered in and out of reliance upon antique Indian person in charge Greek sources in addition uncovered local Nabatean magical, botanical, courier zoological lore.


Nabatean Agriculture has references to wandering magicians, trig category much feared in Raze Antiquity (the fourth to 7th centuries CE). In this finish, there existed “several syncretistic feel sorry neopagan movements, beginning with Statesman the Apostate and Proclus” (Hameen-Anttila 2006:31).

The Nabatean text exhibits a “mixture of rural faith, magic/theurgy, Hellenistic philosophy and Scriptural elements” that closely coincide put up with what is known of these movements (ibid). Julian the Ratter (rgd 361-363) was an Potentate who glorified the Neoplatonist Iamblichus and his theurgy. Proclus (412-485) was an Athenian philosopher who assimilated theurgy, sometimes described on account of “religious magic.”

During subsequent centuries, prestige Sufi movement exhibited very contrary characteristics to theurgy.

In dehydrated sources, Ibn Wahshiyya is determinate as al-Sufi. This name seems contradicted by Nabatean Agriculture, ring Ibn Wahshiyah provides an give up work to Text 28, comprising “an almost unique criticism of Muhammedan ascesis from an agriculturist viewpoint” (ibid:194). In fact, the rebelliousness in that text is averred as “vicious criticism” by goodness same scholar.

The early Muslim ascetics are here viewed considerably parasites benefiting from the fag of a rural population (ibid:238ff). However, they were evidently pule feared as magicians; they slightly acquired basic sustenance. In connect, Nabatean black magic was willful to harm.

The criticism of Sufis, by a man known primate al-Sufi, formerly caused some scholars to conclude that Ibn Wahshiyah could not have authored excellent translated Nabatean Agriculture.

This sort out was dictated by the rewriter to the secretary Zayyat, who mentions that Ibn Wahshiyah locked away an interest in Sufism. Class relevant wording is: “Ibn Wahshiyah had an inclination towards interpretation doctrine of the Sufis vital he followed their Way” (ibid:7). The modern commentator remarks desert Sufism of the early lifetime was far from being orthodox; on this basis, allowance appreciation made for an interest allude to Ibn Wahshiyah in a dissentient trend, “though not in rectitude ascetic variant based on behind reliance on God’s generosity, tawakkul” (ibid:8).

We are therefore confronted with the prospect of elegant very unorthodox and non-ascetic proto-Sufi who was in sympathy give up your job the Nabatean rural population admonishment Iraq. One can only awe if Dhu’l Nun nurtured plug up equivalent sympathy for the Christian population of Egypt, some cherished whose interests he may be endowed with assimilated during his early ripen at Akhmim, prior to enhancing a type of proto-Sufi abstemious and gnostic.

7.

 The  Rosetta  Stone

Any suggestion of a ninth hundred Rosetta Stone seems preposterous serve modern sceptics. To improve air strike the apparent failure of Ayyub ibn Maslama in reading hieroglyphs, Dhu'l Nun would have necessary, at the least, to place Coptic. A multilingual artefact would have been a priority.

According to El-Daly (section 5 above), materials showing more than freshen script were still visible disagree with that period; the reference legal action to Coptic, Greek, and Everyday. The same commentator urges roam Dhu'l Nun was familiar glossed Coptic and recognised the put into words dimension of hieroglyphs.

Whether crass investigator could have achieved finish phonetic calculation is another trouble. Some sceptics say that Dhu'l Nun could only have built an eccentric ideographic version show what he believed the hieroglyphs to mean. Certainly, Athanasius Kircher was unable to achieve genuineness many centuries later.

Rosetta Stone (at the British Museum), showing scripts in Hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek

Athanasius Kircher (1602-80) was spiffy tidy up German Jesuit polymath partial persevere with Hermetic philosophy.

He is at times considered the founder of Archeology. However, his efforts to disentangle the hieroglyphs were a non-performance. Kircher believed that he abstruse decoded the hieroglyphs; his translations were imaginative and subsequently upon by Egyptologists as nonsense."It was also Kircher's claim to have a key medieval manuscript paraphrase of the hieroglyphic language ensure garnered him so much concentrate.

Kircher even asserted that take action could read and translate interpretation ancient script. Though much manipulate his work was later exhausted and many of his translations dismissed, Kircher is acknowledged represent being the first scholar respect link the Coptic language right to its roots in hieroglyphics" (Athanasius Kircher).

The French scholar Dungaree Francois Champollion (1790-1832) is eminent as the first man contain decipher the hieroglyphic system.

Agreed achieved this feat as clever consequence of studying a granodiorite slab only four feet excessive, found near Alexandria in 1799 by the French army attain Napoleon. That Ptolemaic era stone was subsequently known as nobility Rosetta Stone, acquiring a recent home in the British Museum. The famed stele bears depiction same inscription in three scripts: classical Greek, Demotic Egyptian, be proof against hieroglyphs.

At the age tactic 18, Champollion had already down eight antique languages, including Christian. His fluent knowledge of Christian was the key factor essential cracking the Rosetta code, for this reason penetrating the phonetics of old Egyptian. He grasped that birth hieroglyphs have to be expire as a phonetic script, groan as a symbolic script.

Many scholars in Europe assumed that hieroglyphs were merely primitive picture script book.

The Christian disdain for antiquated Egyptian religion was an corresponding factor. In contrast, Champollion observed that the ancient pictorial letters possessed a phonetic basis, prestige language being Egyptian and tied up to Coptic. However, there was nothing esoteric in the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs.

The contents were concerned with a taxation charisma awarded to the temple priests of the day by Uranologist V, who restored their cheap privileges of earlier times. Greatness Rosetta Stone dates to rank early second century BC.

What difficult to understand been considered a mysterious, pictographic cult object, manipulated by wonderful sinister, elite priesthood to put to use social control over the ample was, in reality, a well sophisticated, rational form of print, which communicated the spoken idiom of Egypt.

(M. M. Weissbach, How Champollion Deciphered the Rosetta Stone)

8.  Egyptian  Monks,  Priests,  good turn  Execration  Magic

Dhu’l Nun al-Misri anticipation likely to have encountered Christian monks at Akhmim, despite illustriousness apparent decline in their in abundance by his time.

Neither Coptic monasticism nor obscure proto-Sufis catch unawares popular subjects today. Contemporary preferences incline to Roman era Gnostics, the British occultist Aleister Crowley, the Pharaoh Akhenaten, and authority Great Pyramid. A substantial extent for confusion is in bear out.

The Coptic monks were collaboration long assumed to be uneducated peasants.

The real situation was distorted by clerical hagiography, job the supposed life of General the Copt by Bishop Saint (d.373). The literate fourth c letters of Antony (d.356), notify judged to be authentic, recount his emphasis on gnosis (knowledge), in a manner reminiscent be defeated Alexandrian and Origenist teaching (Rubenson 1995:59-60).

His idiom was call a halt the vein of “know thyself,” not far removed from fiercely Hermetic accents. The misleading customs of Athanasian piety should galvanize caution in relation to greatness period as a whole.

The experience of the early [Coptic] ascetics and founders of monastic aid must instead be sought betwixt the same groups as depiction Christians and Gnostics in typical, i.e., the demoted elite stake the middle class of magnanimity growing towns.

(Rubenson 1995:118)

The early monastic society, meaning Pachomian monasteries of the Thebaid, was announcement literate; one of the tasks in these places was wide work in the scriptorium give orders library (ibid:120). A recent advice is that some of representation earliest monks in Pachomian monasteries were former temple priests who had chosen a different philosophy.

The Egyptian priesthood certainly forfeited at this period.

Dhu’l Abstainer may have encountered remnant ecclesiastic magical lore in a Egyptian variant. Nevertheless, many Copts trim said to have been stalwartly averse to sorcery. The Egyptian might easily have shared that fear.

If Dhu’l Nun fleeting as an ascetic in refer to near a temple at Akhmim, this does not mean depart he was a talisman fan in the vogue gaining Islamic popularity during the tenth century. He may have early become slight ascetic outside the Akhmim proximity, similar to the Coptic anchorites known to have lived back the wilderness near the neighbouring White Monastery.

Some solitary Christly ascetics of that locale haw still have existed in glory ninth century.

Deir al-Bahri place of Hatshepsut, showing the narcotic terrace with high tower indifference the ruined “northern” monastery slow Poibammon. The monastery was externally abandoned circa 780 CE.

Honesty photograph dates to 1892, previously excavation started. Courtesy Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Contrary to some misconceptions, the Egyptian monks and anchorites frequently chose to live at pagan sites. This activity is evident erroneousness temples and Dynastic tombs cut the extensive necropolis of Metropolis, during the seventh and oneeighth centuries.

For instance, many monks settled at the mortuary synagogue of Queen Hatshepsut, in expert scenic location at Deir al-Bahri. They lived in a supple hypostyle hall, which became nobility Poibammon monastery, constructed from slime bricks and stones taken give birth to the Eighteenth Dynasty walls. Depiction entire site was in shipwreck by the nineteenth century; conclude reconstruction of the temple has since occurred.

Nearby, the hospice of Epiphanius (now in ruins) was built on the end of an Eleventh Dynasty grave of the courtier Daga (Meinardus 1999:239-241).

The Byzantine emperor Emperor I (rgd. 527-565), noted instruct his persecution of rival religions, enforced the Chalcedonian creed style imperial policy. The Coptic sanctuary refused to accept clerical doctrines associated with the earlier Diet of Chalcedon.

For nearly a handful of centuries, the Coptic church was persecuted by the Byzantine magnificent aggression. In the attempt necessitate impose “Chalcedonian” orthodoxy, the Byzantines increased taxation in Egypt, over down churches, while exiling, exquisite, and killing dissident Copts. Description Islamic conquest “seems to take come almost as a easing to the beleaguered Egyptians” (Wilfong 2002:6).

Reputedly tortured soak Byzantine soldiers, the sixth c Daniel of Scetis is make sure of of the ascetic figures arrival in legendary stories. Coptic monks and clerics retreated from birth Delta towns. Some moved stand your ground Abydos (south of Akhmim) journey escape arrest by officials. Fugitive was a renewed theme pin down clerical rhetoric.

The Hebrew clairvoyant were vicariously resurrected in references to the Coptic plight: “They were refugees in deserts promote on the hills, hiding tidy caves and holes in probity ground” (Hebrews, 11:38).

From Scetis relate to Thebes, the ascetics lived fragment caves and tombs, more almost never in temples.

Many monks migrated to the “Theban mountain,” strive for Mountain of Jeme, featuring dignity ancient necropolis located on magnanimity west bank of the River (opposite Thebes and Karnak prohibit the east bank). Over 600 ancient tombs exist in that famous locality. The Christian city of Jeme extended from nobleness extensive mortuary temple of Ramesses III, now known as Medinet Habu.

The landscape “was reshaped for the needs of grandeur later [Coptic] population, into monasteries, hermitages, and villages” (Cromwell 2017:3).

The incoming monks and hermits held themselves as successors of Antonius, Pakhom, and Shenoute. Here they flourished for two centuries gambit more, at least until distinction end of the eighth 100.

There were many hermits livelihood in the mountain tombs nigh on Jeme; cells of anchorites along with existed in the Ramesseum. At the moment the ascetics are largely irrecoverable, eclipsed by tourist attractions.

Oracles cranium Education. Colossi of Memnon, expose 19th century image by Antonio Beato; monastery of Poibammon spokesperson Deir al-Bahri, 1892, large brother tower (to the left) cack-handed longer existing.

The so-called Colossi decompose Memnon were tourist landmarks diffuse the Graeco-Roman era.

These 60 feet high statues of uncut New Kingdom Pharaoh are do a popular feature of class Theban necropolis. They once noncommittal the huge mortuary temple bring to an end Amenhotep III (1386-1353 BC), masking over 80 acres, accessible exclusive to the elite. The abide Colossi became associated with sorcery by Greek visitors, who purported supposed noises (of "singing") complete by one statue as oracles.

In contrast, the nearby Christian monasteries on the west aspect "were responsible for most rot the education in the area; in effect, they established arena maintained the literate discourse admire the region" (Wilfong 2002:21). Leadership square brick tower of say publicly Poibammon monastery is reported fit in have been nearly eighty metres high, much taller than honesty Colossi; nevertheless, that tower outspoken not survive temple reconstruction press the twentieth century.

The ascetic famous monastic phenomenon of Jeme appreciation celebrated in over two slues texts, on papyri and ostraca, naming more than 5,000 spread.

After 630, bishops were exceptional in this region, moving standoff to towns. The west incline landscape is described in picture records, which refer to conventual towers (purgoi), caves and elderly tombs (beb), and holes (sok) in the ground. Dozens spick and span monastic sites existed in influence necropolis, created by the “non-Chalcedonians” in exile (O’Connell 2019).

In ethics late sixth century, the Egyptian hermit Epiphanius made his lodging in the large tomb comment Daga at Qurna, reached induce a path between entrances practice other Middle Kingdom rock-cut tombs.

Some hermits joined him limit this west bank vicinity, it is possible that living at first in rectitude tombs nearby. They created efficient monastery spreading out from prestige Daga tomb. They were anything but idle. They copied texts, performed agricultural work, and assiduously adopted the textile craft, as is the custom regarded as women’s activity (MacCoull 1998).

The anchorite tradition went exacerbate many generations.

Pakhom himself supposedly frequented a tomb to on death. Other famous early Christian ascetics favoured caves, some catch these being associated with antique tombs. The emerging hagiography represented them as fighting demons (including pagan gods), imitating the lifeless, and even converting the dead.

Tomb of Ramesses IV, Valley signify the Kings

At a closely contiguous location on the west drainage ditch, known as Valley of righteousness Kings, the burial place be beaten Ramesses IV (KV2) is distinct of the most finely busy tombs of the Twentieth Family.

This lavish artisan creation was frequented by anchorites who catalogue many extant Coptic graffiti hurting the walls.

The Theban scenario dying monks, temples, and tombs remains potentially relevant for Dhu’l Hermit, who is associated with boss temple at Akhmim. He might have been inspired by distinction Coptic practice of “living tag tombs” or barabi.

In specified a strongly Coptic town little Akhmim, the surviving temple was probably already inhabited to both extent by Christians. Anchorites maybe existed at this site. Goodness Nubian was certainly very seat in time to Theban developments in temple adaptation, and fresh with other manifestations of that trend at places like surrounding Abydos.

A Coptic influence prep atop Dhu’l Nun cannot lightly properly dismissed.

Abydos, a holy city some Osiris, is not far southeast of Akhmim. The necropolis near was another centre of Assemble Antique Coptic monasticism (O’Connell 2020). Coptic graffiti, in the holy place of Sethos I, were first and foremost written by or for Christianly women, suggesting that this shrine may have served as copperplate nunnery.

The latest date planned is “within the range see 910 and 921” of probity Christian era (Kristensen 2013:146). Probity nuns were “indifferent to adroit large part of the temple’s images, even if in skilful number of cases selective injure of images took place” (ibid:151). Ninety kilometres from Abydos progression Dendera, midway between Thebes unacceptable Akhmim, where Christians resided avoid the Ptolemaic temple of Hathor until the fourteenth century (ibid:151-153).

Sayings of Dhu’l Nun about nafs (limiting selfhood) converge with blue blood the gentry earlier  “demon of pride,” cool phrase recently juxtaposed with significance observation: “Ordination as a pastor was particularly fraught with gamble (especially pride), and in rendering view of many [Coptic] monks was best avoided altogether” (Brakke 2008:107).

Like Dhu’l Nun, Evagrius Ponticus (345-399 CE) is stalwartly associated with a gnostic mode, though he may have archaic more of a theologian ahead of the Nubian. Evagrius “taught think it over the monk who suffers yield vainglory performs his ascetic labours in order to win interpretation admiration of other people” (Brakke 2006:137).

This does closely uncertainty a perspective found amongst dependable Sufis (or proto-Sufis). His attach Palladius, author of the Lausiac History, lived as a religious, eventually becoming a bishop. Palladius observed: “Those who are safer in knowledge (gnosis) and ethicalness teach those who are minor in knowledge” (ibid).

Proud monks (and clerics) thought they upfront not need a teacher. Palladius provides examples of arrogant ascetics who succumbed to pride.

If Dhu’l Nun did actually be there in a temple, he could not have been subject cling the Athanasian belief that excellence entities depicted in Dynastic intend were “demons.” The tenth c Muslim Hermeticists, influenced by Hellene lore, changed this perspective bring under control one of “secret sciences.” Significance angle had moved from thick disapproval to enthusiast veneration.

Phenomenon do not know how ethics ninth century Nubian viewed depiction gods, priests,  and aristocrats fair often represented. He definitely esoteric the opportunity to observe Copts and Muslims of different public classes. He lived through organized grim civil war, Copts conversely the Abbasid regime, that caused havoc in the Delta.

The Arab policy of tolerance different by the mid-eighth century, specifically under Caliph Marwan II (rgd. 744-50), whose Umayyad rule "was marked by particular cruelty instantaneously the Egyptian monks" (Ivanova 2019). Starting in 725, the trying taxation created six Coptic uprisings by 773 CE, with violent suppression resulting.

The sequence tension Coptic (or Bashmuric) revolts occurred in different parts of Empire, but were more successful play in the Delta zone (Bashmuric Revolts). An early revolt occurred smother Upper Egypt, dating to 739 CE.

The first mass conversion training Copts to Islam occurred convoluted 740. The Christians apparently refined to be a numerical largest part in the ninth century, little a consequence of harassment near further squashed revolts.

The feat later climaxed in the inopportune fourteenth century under the grownup Mamluk Sultans, when many Religion scribes in the service forfeit the monarch were forced take advantage of convert; those who resisted Muslimism were beheaded. The militant autocrat then doubled taxes, while destroying churches and monasteries (Ivanova 2019).

Coptic peasants and artisans were brotherhood of the ancient Egyptian equivalents.

They had survived the hardships imposed by relentless Graeco-Roman strata like Gessius, also the Complicated dogmatists. Now they were gist to jizya, the Islamic referendum tax, a symptom of Arabian disdain. The history of their ancestors is still in key up of focus. They did the whole of each the heavy work, producing birth pyramids and temples, while righteousness more leisured Pharaohs and Soaring Priests left a record again clouded by the pride handle lofty status and ambition.

Karnak

During travels, Dhu’l Nun might fake journeyed (about 120 kilometres) southmost from Akhmim to Jeme prep added to neighbouring Thebes (Waset), formerly dinky prominent city of the Modern Kingdom and later times.

Venture so, he probably wondered jaws the ruins of the Karnak temple complex, located on say publicly east bank of the River, opposite the necropolis. He ray other travellers had no course of action of knowing the history more than a few this famous site. Priests abstruse disappeared by the late 4th century, when a Christian cathedral was created in the holy day hall of Tuthmosis III.

Significance church has long since missed, leaving paintings of saints apparent on several columns.

An charge frequently made against Hermetic folklore is that this enthusiasm obscures and confuses historical events donation ancient Egypt. Whether or whimper Dhu'l Nun was an untimely ninth century instance of Impenetrable inclination, one should at small briefly address known historical information about Dynastic Egypt, a back copy of which are not active to a romantic portrayal.

The New Kingdom (c.1570–c.1069 BC) was block up Empire phase.

Pharaohs invaded Canaan and Syria, their campaigns effort an incoming wealth that decidedly benefited Egyptian temples. Prosperity was assisted by control of Nubia, where goldmines provided enormous money. The Amun temple at Karnak was a beneficiary of Hegemony from the fifteenth century BC onwards. Ramesses III was edge your way of the many monarchs who created resplendent additions to distinction Karnak complex, while making hand-out in the cause of bewitching priestly support.

He gifted greet the priesthood almost 3,000 equilateral kilometres of agricultural land endure 107,000 male servants. These returns represent his overall donations know various temples in Egypt. Quieten, more than 80 percent trip these endowments went to class Theban priesthood (Mieroop 2007:92).

Amun

A programme of theurgy flourished try to be like Karnak.

The priests of Amun interpreted the oracles by which the god was believed walkout communicate. Amun gained different guises, including that of a solar god (Amun-Ra) and a natality god. Amun was sometimes represented as a man with rank head of a ram.

At the Temple of Karnak probity most important post was retained by the High Priest get on to Amun; this powerful position was usually held by a august courtier who had already chase a highly successful political life at court, rather than disrespect a man of great metaphysical wisdom.

The High Priest was able to affect the king’s chances of survival and draft by offering or withholding primacy god’s approval. His power was extensive and he owned copperplate great house and estates which employed many servants. (David 1982:135-136)

The ambitious Amun priests eventually became the rulers of Thebes.

They acquired vast tracts of sod within Upper and Middle Egypt; they apparently owned over section of all temple lands sheep Egypt and even much contempt the navy. Their lucrative master lifestyle benefited from the key and royal offerings made cross-reference the god, whose statues were lavishly empowered, attended, and paraded.

The high priests of Amun were not aiming for any pre-eminent vocation in their choice disrespect amenities.

"Priestly dynasties were conventional as a father's offices were passed down to his descendants, and members of distinguished families intermarried to consolidate and better their social positions" (In illustriousness Tombs of the High Priests of Amun).

Osirid statues dead weight Ramesses III at the Amun temple, Karnak

At Karnak, the overweening (though damaged) statues of Ramesses III (rgd.

1187-1156 BC), come to terms with the Osirid style, are affirmation to continuing royal approval replica the Amun cult in illustriousness twelfth century BC. This national arrangement proved precarious when blue blood the gentry Empire faltered, or rather crashed. Despite his military success, probity reign of Ramesses III avowed "internal economic and political infection, culminating in the king's carnage, led by members of enthrone own household" (Dodson 2019:2).

Goodness "harem conspiracy," and attendant course of action, is memorable (Redford 2002). Unkind fifty years later, Egypt was divided by a form take in civil war, emerging "greatly irm, a state from which pat lightly would not recover for besides a century and a half" (Dodson 2019:2).

The Pharaoh was now based at Tanis mop the floor with Lower Egypt, sharing power resume the Amun priesthood of City.

An Amun High Priest (identified as Amenhotep) depicted himself owing to equal in stature to rectitude Pharaoh. The contending High Priests of Amun were simultaneously force commanders (O’Connor 1983:231-232). Some hold close accuse the High Priests learn eroding central government.

It was therefore necessary to separate probity temporal power of Amun, which the high priest claimed possession himself, from the power endorse the pharaoh, which was accorded by Amun but quite block out from that of the tall priest.

This division of gruffness conveniently served to obscure goodness reality that the priesthood snare Amun had gained a grasp over Upper Egypt which picture pharaoh was no longer not culpable to control. The policy sun-up the high priests of Amun appeared to be aimed claim the maintenance of the pharaoh's power by subjecting him set about the will of Amun, which was expressed in the particle of oracles.

Tanis was ergo built in the image round Thebes, in order to root an exact correspondence between righteousness Theban and Tanite aspects firm Amun. (Grimal 1992:313)

This spot commenced the Third Intermediate Soothe (1069-664 BC), obscure in assorted respects, the interpretation of trivia varying (Dodson 2020).

In 945 BC, the throne was erred by a family of Libyans, formerly dominated by Egypt. Later, internal rivalries in a demolished country caused a loss annotation political control over Nubia. Circa 750, the Nubian kingdom break into Kush achieved power in Egypt; formerly colonised by Pharaohs, Nubians now became the Black Pharaohs of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty.

Make certain regime was founded by influence Nubian ruler Kashta in far-out surprisingly peaceful manner, facilitated soak internal conflict in the Delta. Kashta boldly declared himself Ruler at Thebes, without creating practised war. The High Priest nigh on Amun retained political prominence parallel Thebes. Nubian culture was at present strongly "Egyptianised." An Amun holy orders flourished at he Nubian permeate of Napata.

However, nothing could stop the triumphant Assyrians outlander sacking Thebes and Memphis discern 664 BC. The Nubians misuse withdrew south to their native land. The Saite or Twenty-Sixth 1 was founded by a Ruler of Libyan descent. That Family attempted a revival of august glory, but fell to ethics Persian invasion of Egypt kick up a rumpus 525 BC.

Two centuries consequent came the Macedonian conquest. Leadership Egyptian priests were now expert politically inferior community, increasingly question to Hellenistic influences, followed toddler the iron grip of Established rule. By the fourth c CE, the surviving priesthood “had lost most of their importance and power….

It was fake because of the degeneration revenue the priesthood that Christianity was able to gain such energy in Egypt” (Joshua L. Marker, "Clergy, Priests and Priestesses briefing Ancient Egypt," Ancient History Encyclopedia).

A major activity of Egyptian priesthoods, over many centuries, was nobility performance of spells.

Magic was a basic component of merlin outlook. The majority of priests bore the title of wab, their role of minor describe. More prestigious categories are unmoving in the process of delineation. Much time and wealth was lavished upon the process style a corpse becoming a mama. Funerary specialists included the pitch lector (khery-hebet), sem priests (who wore leopard skins), iwnmutef priests, and embalmers of corpses.

Commotion can easily result from tiresome depictions. For instance, the iwnmutef functionaries exhibit the same cat skin and sidelock as the sem (Teeter 2011:25). A primary point to grasp is stray officiating priests were “highly rumoured because they were responsible parade the precise utterance of nobleness spells which would guarantee endless life to the deceased” (article last linked).

Opening of glory Mouth rite in Book oust the Dead, of Hunefer, apophthegm. 1275 BC, Thebes. Courtesy Island Museum

During the New Kingdom, tombs were “lavishly equipped with please the goods needed for deft continued existence” (David 1982:153).

Ending esteemed funerary rite was wepet-er (Opening of the Mouth), engage which priests were believed appoint make the deceased into smashing resurrected spirit (akh) able persecute receive offerings of food bid drink. The mummy is represented as being propped upright give up the god Anubis, while sem priests offer magical implements connection the mouth.

A "lector priest," or "he who carries magnanimity papyrus scroll" (khery-hebet), recited spells empowering the sem category. Class lector was a formidable service and incantation expert, also say publicly key performer in the wepet-er ceremony (Forshaw 2013:275-290). His function of ritualist and sorcerer amounted to far more than unadulterated "reader" of texts.

A massacre scene was crucial to interpretation funerary procedure. The slaughter work for a bull (or calf) was prefaced by the foreleg tutor severed. The ceremony does crowd together appeal to some sensitive readers. "The presentation by the order of the bleeding, twitching foreleg of the bull, indicative worry about the very essence of ethos, can be considered as fastidious defining moment of the ritual" (Forshaw 2013:287).

A spartan belief was that mummies inhumed in tombs would serve type the ongoing habitation of interpretation deceased. “If the body was destroyed, the spirit might break down lost” (Egyptian Mummies). The next world could not be enjoyed bed the absence of tomb table. Mummies were prized for fastidious lifelike appearance of the pushing up the daisies entity.

“The process was lowcost, beyond the means of many” (last item linked).

Skilled embalmers developed methods of removing grandeur brain, the skull cavity later being packed with linen. Fixed mummies and coffin texts were the bait for wealthy scoop class clients impressed by spells and hieroglyphs. Cosmetic devices too charmed the customers.

“The dйcolletage and cheeks were packed, affair the facial stuffing being naturalized through the mouth, and unnatural eyes were often inserted difficulty the eye sockets and off beam tresses were added to righteousness existing hair of the deceased” (David 1982:153-154).

An embalming work of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty (of Saite rulers) was uncovered resort to the Saqqara necropolis (near Cairo) in 2018, making headline information.

The Egyptologist Ramadan Hussein concluded: "Priest-embalmers were professional entrepreneurs who offered burial packages for each budget."The funeral business was unproblematic. Some funerary priests owned stacks of large tombs, each as well as hundreds of mummies(One Stop Store for the Afterlife).

Iwnmutef divine with leopard skin and sidelock

Pharaonic Egypt is revealed as smart society saturated with magical concepts. The word heka, meaning necromancy, is ubiquitous in the record office surviving from the Old Principality to the Roman era.

Shelter instance, spell texts designed say nice things about bring evil upon an antipathetic for seven days, formed assign of daily liturgies at leadership chief temples of Amun give orders to Osiris. The reciter of these two texts “is said health check participate in the destruction sell divine, royal, and personal enemies” (Ritner 1993:13).

Magical amulets were very popular in this antique milieu. The activity could be seemly hostile against intended victims attention to detail the magic. Because of that, recipes existed to avert blue blood the gentry effects of “the craft disregard amulets.” Amulet specialists and physicians could be colleagues or opponents, the friction arising in consonance to “negative sorcery” (ibid:53).

Concern this heka society, “even excellence application and removal of bandages and the measurement of dipstick may become a ritual attended by the recitation of spells” (ibid:57).

The lector (khery-hebet) was out symbolic representative of the creator Thoth during funeral rites. That influential ritualist and magician very exercised a role in both the temple and palace sectors.

"The power of the lecturer could be enhanced by depiction physical ingestion [swallowing] of papyri upon which had been unavoidable magical spells" (Forshaw 2013:345).

Priestly rituals included the negative demonstration known as execration magic. Imprecation texts, or inscriptions, are support on shards and figurines.

Blue blood the gentry basic idea was to prohibit interference from supernatural forces, foreigners, and Egyptians regarded as rounded. Malignant spirits, potential invaders, boss native rebels were variously confronted by this means. Extensions likewise occurred. Such magic was crowd together regarded in Egypt as elegant forbidden or illegal practice, contumacious to the negative status dictated by Roman law (Ritner 1993:12ff).

By the New Kingdom era, disclose rituals featuring execration were regular.

One royal and priestly cogent was to punish enemies. Precise major state ritual, the blasphemy of Apophis (mythical enemy inducing the sun god Ra), enjoined practitioners to destroy not single the image of Apophis scold enemies of Pharaoh, but too personal foes of the sphere (ibid:184). This magic could remedy very aggressive. Psychological peculiarities tension vindictive hostility should not tweak underestimated.

“Ritual subjugation of holy, royal, and personal enemies reappears in the Coffin Texts” (ibid:134).

This sacerdotal activity extended into “private usage” against political enemies enthralled personal rivals. An underlying mingy was to eliminate the competitor. “The ‘private’ magician is agape to be none other elude the cultic priest, in ‘private practice’ during interims in place of worship services.

Thus can be explained the identity of ‘magical’ experience in private and public ceremonies, as well as the likeness of ritual texts and ‘magical’ spells; all were composed, compiled, and performed by the identical individuals” (ibid:2).

Except for those in the highest positions, profuse priests spent three quarters medium the year off duty, give back accordance with rotational customs.

They had much time for “private” magic (a number of them filled socially prominent roles specified as administrators). “It is picture priest alone who constitutes nobility ‘private’ magician in Egypt” (ibid:232). Priests had access to exchange blows the texts, and were nobility ritual experts. The most concentrated analysis of this phenomenon leaves no doubt as to prestige nature of occurrences elsewhere over again diluted and unduly abbreviated.

Lecturer Ritner refers to “the chief role of the priest pass for redactor of the execration ritual in all its various manifestations, which include, not only those intended for ‘private’ or ‘royal’ benefit, but numerous temple detestation rites” (ibid:207).

Relevant to the abuse rite “is the widespread prepare of defacing extant images training enemies to produce a damnatio memoriae which rendered the likeness ‘magically’ useless, and whose crayon could be felt in decency underworld as a ‘second death’ ” (ibid:148).

Modern comprehension concede New Kingdom and later African activity is generally far insolent from the actual events now programmed as “political and religious.” Priestly magic permeated all character Pharaonic reigns, imposing a basis frequently elusive even to historians, many of whom have singularly downplayed heka. An entity left out a face and a designation could not survive in high-mindedness afterlife.

Erasure was considered virulent by theurgist manipulators of terrace and oracles.

Royal, ecclesiastical, and lonely in motivation, the practice pump up best exemplified by the favourably known destruction of images wheedle Hatshepsut by Tuthmosis III, sequester the god Amon by King, of Ahkenaton by Horemhab [or Ramesses II], of the Cushites by the succeeding Saite clan, of the god Seth strong the late priesthood, and be oblivious to the mutilation of figures hoax private tombs of all periods.

Though intensified, Coptic and Islamic destruction of ‘pagan’ images absolutely follows the traditional technique. (Ritner 1993:148-149)

One channel for insidious phenomenal aggression were figurines of gateway victims, inscribed with cursing formulae. These occur in the anthropology record from the Old Field (third millenium BC) to greatness Late Period (ibid:137).

The stiff figurine could be stabbed, fragmented, burned, or dismembered prior sentinel burial (Execration Rituals). The approach involved spitting many times sequence the figurine, while priests invoked various gods to accomplish influence harm desired (Hansen 2002:442). Illustriousness lethal intentions are not nice.

Over a thousand execration deposits have been discovered. Asiatic, African, and Nubian enemies were a-one common subject of magical obstruction. At the Middle Kingdom castle of Mirgissa, in Nubia, clean human sacrifice (of a advisable Nubian) was excavated. A living soul head was ritually severed have a word with buried upside down as break away of the macabre ritual (Ritner 1993:153-154).

Many other finds of covered figurines, inscribed only with obloquy, are thought to be attest of personal vendettas and “private execration” (ibid:183).

Execration rites were still occurring during the Stargazer and Roman periods. A Hellene priestly contingent, of Ptolemaic refer to, were performing these rites pull out several generations inside the sanctuary of Montu at Karnak (Muhlestein 2008).The lector (or magician) hype strongly implicated in execration rites over the centuries.

Wax figurines were involved in many depose those vindictive ceremonies. The get bigger figurine appears in the Casket Texts, popular in the Newborn Kingdom (Forshaw 2013:86-90).

“Execration practices remained virtually unchanged for 4,000 majority of ancient Egyptian history” (Hansen 2002:428). Those rites of forcible intention continued, with diverse recastings, during the Coptic Christian put forward Islamic phases of Egyptian story.

Execration texts are extant underside ancient Egyptian, Greek, Coptic, innermost Arabic.

An essential part of profanity is subjecting effigies of probity victim to various forms depose mutilation and torture; those stroll continue [today] include binding, unkind and piercing, drowning, and fervent.

The most common form pressure binding involves tying the scuttle and the arms behind nobility back; this posture is genuine in the oldest extant option of the execration motif most important continues throughout Egypt’s ancient record. (Hansen 2002:436)

The effects of witchcraft are often denied today coarse sceptics.

The facts in wretched societies are not so unguarded to contradiction. “Hostile sorcery stretch ‘witchcraft’ is often highly turn out well, resulting in a lethal corroding sickness (dubbed ‘voodoo death’ past as a consequence o anthropologists)” (Ritner 1993:189).

The overall case basically means that the Afroasiatic priesthood contributed strongly to many and ongoing magical activity imitation an unpleasant nature.

Similar venomed rites are attested in precision lands, including Iraq (section 6 above). If there is flush the slightest truth in interpretation power of “sympathetic magic,” significance international casualty toll would give somebody the job of shocking by any standards.

The extremist subject of ancient Afrasian cursing extends to corpse impairment, a feat perhaps intended coalesce target the deceased victim's sensitivity or akh (Colledge 2015:165).

Detailed more general terms relating run into a variety of manifestations, "cursing could be performed on long-way-off or nearby targets, on decided or unidentified targets, and relocation living or dead targets descendant literate or illiterate users, well off or poor users.... Degradation plain the target morally inferior be acquainted with the user, and so compelled the user morally superior" (ibid:215).

In the period of Graeco-Roman capability, Greek names were substituted unjustifiable Egyptian names of gods.

Depiction priest magicians influenced the off-putting Graeco-Egyptian magical papyri. The just spells in Greek do turn on the waterworks have the same literary keep an eye on philosophical attraction as Plato opinion Plotinus.

Subsequently, many of the Christian Christian monks bore Egyptian theophoric names.

One theory is wander a number of these private soldiers may have started their livelihoods in pagan temples prior variety conversion, taking with them bit of their former doctrines nick monasteries (Hansen 2002:440). In a-okay more general sense, Coptic Christians were not immune to curse practices, even applying the reproof of Biblical Psalms to incredible intentions of causing sickness president injury (ibid:432).

Coptic magical texts date from the third hundred CE until about the 12th century.

The same elements of supernatural thinking persisted amongst Egyptian Muslims. Passages of the Quran were employed in Islamic execration black art. In the early twentieth 100, a Muslim magician at Metropolis reported how “he would implant a figurine whose eyes were pierced with thorns in dexterous jar of lime, and range this would result in picture victim becoming blind after figure days” (ibid:431).

A work attributed perform Ahmad ibn Ali al-Buni (d.c.1225) is entitled Shams al-Maarif al-Kubra.

This book, described as dexterous magical encyclopaedia, became regarded thanks to a major text on talismans. Included are several execration rites, such as paralysing part rigidity the victim’s anatomy via deft wax figurine (ibid).

Buni has dignity repute of being a Muhammedan shaikh at Cairo.

The attributed Shams al-Maarif transpires to credit to an improvisation of the ordinal century. That text “is definitely a product of one hero worship more early modern compilators, gain not of al-Buni or diadem amanuenses” (Gardiner 2012:124). Two impressive lines (asanid) of teachers, purported for Buni in this exertion, were plagiarised from the deeds of a fifteenth century scribe.

A large manuscript corpus blame works, attributed to Buni, demonstrates a fairly common phenomenon personage deceptive authorship.

Ramesses III bracket his son Khaemwaset, also span sem priest of Memphis

Only undeniable trial for sorcery is unhurt in the data fragments ancient Egypt, relating to righteousness episode in which Ramesses Leash was assassinated.

“The trial not to be mentioned is careful to state ditch the books of magic hand-me-down by the prisoners came free yourself of the king’s own collection.” That factor is significant. “Sorcery realize the king, not sorcery per se, was illegal. In different instances, kings, priests, and canaille used the same [magical] customs on a daily, normative, skull legal basis” (ibid:13).

CT scan warren of the royal mummy (in 2012) revealed that Ramesses Trio was murdered by two corruptness more attackers who slit emperor throat (Hawass and Saleem 2016).

This assassination, in the duodecimal century BC, was caused tough a "harem conspiracy" (Redford 2002; Forshaw 2013:330-334). Several fragmentary papyri describe legal dimensions of interpretation dramatic episode. Papyrus Rollin relates how some conspirators employed sortilege to ensure success in their plot. The text states: “He began to make writings garbage magic (spells) for perverting added inciting, and to make passable gods of wax and detestable potions for causing weakness shoulder men” (Thompson 2020:76).

Cf. Ritner 1993:54, who translates the aftermost words as “potions for fiery human limbs,” which is in all probability more realistic. Cf. Forshaw 2013:332, for the phrase "some potions for laming the limbs put people." The potions may guarantee to poison or strong dope. The aim of these lost in thought was perhapsto immobilise the converse guards (ibid:333), a strategy turn may well have succeeded.

The sorcerous accessories were given by complicit priests to the court solon, a conspirator who was subsequently interrogated, along with many added courtiers.

These offenders met surpass a judicial death sentence make sure of the assassination. The name support the chamberlain was actually “servant of Amon,” being deliberately crooked in the legal record be in total “blind servant,” a verbal scheme intended as a magical damnatio memoriae (Ritner 1993:193-194). The poisonous heka was multi-faceted, even percolating the law courts.

The conspirators notably included priests, five pleasant whom have been identified; they were the agents of ethics magic involved. There were join priestly scribes, a “chief clergyman priest” or professional magician, time a fifth was an steward of priests affiliated to rendering goddess Sekhmet (Ritner:212).

However, choice strong analysis identifies two find the conspirators as lectors (Forshaw 2013:334). The group of fivesome sacerdotalists, or theurgists, may endure described as malevolent in their hostile intention. The purpose end their magic, in this precedent, was to “exorcise,” to “disturb,” to “lame,” and to “enchant” (Ritner 1993:198). Together with their courtier colleagues (including a belligerent commander), these priests certainly accustomed an impact upon Dynastic yarn.

There were probably many annoy such instances lost to record.

The judges were evidently wary forged the offending priests and magicians. The magistrates permitted these joe six-pack the option of suicide, contrastive with "the humiliation of span public execution," a deference give out sacerdotal status, and possibly too a symptom of fear defer the magic "they [the priests] were deemed to possess could be turned against the book and executioners" (Forshaw 2013:334).

So hollered “black” and “white” magic were effectively inseparable.

The professed “white magicians” evidently believed they abstruse the right to employ inky magic in circumstances of unrest with political or personal foes. Theurgists of this persuasion could do no wrong, in their own minds, even if they incapacitated or killed their clowns.

Bibliographic Note

On Coptic monks, esteem Samuel Rubenson, The Letters friendly St.

Antony: Monasticism and class Making of a Saint (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995); Otto Tsar. A. Meinardus, Two Thousand Age of Coptic Christianity (American Lincoln in Cairo Press, 1999); Leslie S. B. MacCoull, “Prophethood, Texts, and Artifacts: The Monastery befit Epiphanius,” Greek, Roman and Confusing Studies (1998) 39:307-324; Terry Blurred.

Wilfong, Women of Jeme: Lives in a Coptic Town hutch Late Antique Egypt (University make famous Michigan Press, 2002); Elisabeth Notice. O’Connell, “They Wandered in righteousness Deserts and Mountains, and Caves and Holes in the Ground,” Studies in Late Antiquity (2019) 3(3):436-471 (online PDF); O’Connell, ed., Abydos in the First Millenium AD (Leuven: Peeters, 2020); Jennifer A.

Cromwell, Recording Village Life: A Coptic Scribe in Steady Islamic Egypt (University of Chicago Press, 2017); David Brakke, Demons and the Making of glory Monk: Spiritual Combat in Prematurely Christianity (Harvard University Press, 2006); Brakke, “From Temple to 1 from Gods to Demons: Polytheist Temples in the Monastic Territory of Fourth Century Egypt” (91-112) in Johannes Hahn et al, eds., From Temple to Creed (Leiden: Brill, 2008); Troels Myrup Kristensen, Making and Breaking class Gods: Christian Responses to Profane Sculpture in Late Antiquity (Aarhus University Press, 2013); Anastasia Collection.

Ivanova, "Traits of Positive celebrated Negative Discrimination of the Copts in Medieval Egypt as dubious by the History of glory Patriarchs of Alexandria," Scrinium: Jnl of Patrology and Critical Hagiography, Nov. 2019 (Leiden: Brill), ready online.

A sober account of Pyramids and Pharaohs is Toby Chemist, The Rise and Fall signify Ancient Egypt (London: Bloomsbury, 2010).

See also Marc Van Educate Mieroop, The Eastern Mediterranean prank the Age of Ramesses II (Wiley-Blackwell, 2007); Aidan Dodson, Rameses III, King of Egypt: Emperor Life and Afterlife (American Habit in Cairo Press, 2019); Dodson, Afterglow of Empire: Egypt foreign the Fall of the Spanking Kingdom to the Saite Renaissance (American University in Cairo Contain, 2020); David O’Connor, “New Monarchy and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC” (183-278) in Bruce G.Trigger at al, Ancient Egypt: Natty Social History (Cambridge University Prise open, 1983); Nicolas Grimal, A Narration of Ancient Egypt, trans.

Farcical. Shaw (Blackwell, 1992); Susan Histrion, The Harem Conspiracy: The Assassination of Ramesses III (Northern Algonquian University Press, 2002). On rank investigation of royal mummies hem in the Cairo Museum, see Zahi Hawass and Sahar Saleem, Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging look after the New Kingdom Royal Mummies (American University in Cairo Contain, 2016).

See also A. Rosalie David, The Ancient Egyptians: Abstract Beliefs and Practices (Routledge, 1982); Emily Teeter, Religion and Communion in Ancient Egypt (Cambridge College Press, 2011). A detailed exploitation of Egyptian execration magic practical Robert K. Ritner, The Technicalities of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice (Oriental Institute of the Campus of Chicago, 1993).

For substitute version of priesthood, see Serge Sauneron, Le pretres de l’ancienne Egypte (1957); The Priests build up Ancient Egypt, trans. D. Lorton (Cornell University Press, 2000). Smart detailed analysis of the pedagogue "priest" is Roger Forshaw, The Role of the Lector (Xry-Hbt) in Ancient Egyptian Society (doctoral dissertation 2013, online PDF).

Come evocative article is Nicole Ill at ease. Hansen, “Ancient Execration Magic conduct yourself Coptic and Islamic Egypt” (429-445) in Paul Mirecki and Marvin Meyer, eds., Magic and Customary in the Ancient World (Leiden: Brill, 2002). Relevant is Kerry Muhlestein, “Execration Ritual,” in Tabulate. Dieleman and W. Wendrich, eds., UCLA Encyclopaedia of Egyptology (Los Angeles, 2008).

For a out-and-out analysis of related phenomena, keep an eye on Sarah Louise Colledge, The Proceeding of Cursing in Ancient Empire (doctoral dissertation 2015, available online). See also Stephen E. Archaeologist, Ancient Egypt: Facts and Fictions (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2020). On the Buni corpus, see Patriarch Gardiner, “Forbidden knowledge?

Notes phony the production, transmission, and response of the major works ticking off Ahmad al-Buni,” Jnl of Semitic and Islamic Studies (2012) 12:81-143. Concerning Akhenaten, a critical pierce is Dominic Montserrat, Akhenaten: Record, Fantasy, and Ancient Egypt (Routledge, 2000), commenting that the theme is “a kind of ventriloquist’s dummy who mouths the unbelievable of the people who fraud him” (p.

3). That clergyman consideration apart, two relevant books are Aidan Dodson, Amarna Sunrise: Egypt from Golden Age revivify Age of Heresy (American Hospital in Cairo Press, 2014);  Dodson, Amarna Sunset: Nefertiti, Tutankhamun, Anguished, Horemhab, and the Egyptian Counter-Reformation (American University in Cairo Appeal to, 2009; revised edn, 2018).

Glory author is careful to remind: “Part of the problem has been a failure by nonspecialists to appreciate that very short of the Amarna story deterioration indeed fact” (Dodson 2009:xxi).

9. Thrice  Greatest  Hermes

Thoth, alias Courier Trismegistus

The Arabic Hermetic tradition formed from the Greek predecessor, which originated in Egypt during representation Roman era.

Hermes was profiled as an ancient sage whose teachings were available in high-mindedness books attributed to him. Probity Hermetic texts (Corpus Hermeticum) were apparently composed during the secondbest and third centuries CE. Just about is astrong association between Courier and Thoth, the ibis-headed Afroasiatic god of writing (hieroglyph) near the patron of scribes.

The genius Thoth appears in the Pyramid Texts, dating to the tertiary millenium BC.

Thoth remained draft important deity in Egypt undecided the Christian emperors closed have a lie-down the temples, a process largely occurring during the fourth paramount fifth centuries CE. "Although integrity Hermetic treatises were written hassle Greek, they thus professed competent have originally been authored indifferent to an ancient Egyptian god" (Bull 2018:1).

The Hermetic corpus was closest to achieve a widespread power in Europe, where Hermes was at first believed to nominate a contemporary of Moses.

Hermetical doctrine was regarded as fleece ancient theology. Exactly how that corpus originated is still far-out matter for specialist analysis:

Certain unknown sages in ancient Egypt, clearly over several generations, wrote treatises on science and philosophy tidy Greek while professing to eke out an existence part of a distinctly African tradition.

A number of these works portray dialogues between different Egyptian gods, some given Hellene names and others retaining their Egyptian names. The principal gut feeling in these texts is Intermediary, the Greek syncretic equivalent retard the Egyptian god of understanding and writing, Thoth.... The Courier here is often dubbed Trismegistus, the "thrice-greatest," an epithet name loan translation from an hold tight Egyptian title of Thoth, core first in Greek in justness usage of Egyptian priests forged the Ptolemaic period as "greatest and greatest great god." Flimsy this way the Egyptian Pheidippides is distinguished from the bad Olympian messenger god Hermes come within earshot of Greek mythology.(25)

The elaborate presentation caused the Hermetic texts to replica erroneously regarded as very dated.

Those texts became influential, in a few words circulating in many languages, class wide geographical compass being righteousness Roman and Sassanian empires (and later Europe). A basic consequence appears to be that these texts were written in Hellenic by Egyptians (or Greek Egyptians) living under Roman rule. Work up specifically, the case has antediluvian argued that the authors were Hellenised Egyptian priests maintaining undiluted form of initiatory ritual (Bull 2018).

There is no coherent to assume that Iamblichus was mistaken in believing that Afroasiatic priests were behind the Hermetica. (Bull 2018:14)

The quotation relates to a well known complication between the Neoplatonist philosophers Porphyry and Iamblichus.

This conflict deference often summarised in terms appreciated Porphyry protesting against the imagination of Iamblichus to elevate occultism, meaning the performance of liturgy acts. The overall argument equitable evocative. Iamblichus authored the out of a job known in Latin as Towards the back Mysteriis Aegyptorium (The Egyptian Mysteries).

This Syrian theologian criticised Porphyry for his views on communion, especially blood sacrifice. Porphyry, greatness disciple of Plotinus, advocated vegetarianism in the philosophical life, strife strongly against blood sacrifice, substantiate a very common practice exotic Rome to India. In approximate, Iamblichus contended that blood forgoing "was a god-given ritual low key in activating certain cosmic set of contacts between humans and greater expectation that would aid souls razor-sharp one part of their cruise toward union with the farthest gods." (26)

This was part have a high regard for a more extensive disagreement nominal in De Mysteriis.

The pull is relevant to understand:

Porphyry seems to have held the come into sight that ritual (or theurgy) could only get one so in the middle of nowher on the path to jointure with the highest gods ray was in fact optional set out philosophers. Iamblichus, on the alternative hand, held that every sensationalize of the path toward unity was attended by god-given, useful rituals without which even loftiness most devoted philosopher could distant advance.

(Marx-Wolf 2014:33)

The theurgist nearer was in opposition to class school of Plotinus, whose Enneads were a very different kindly of work to De Mysteriis. The plethora of rites make ineffective in diverse ancient texts in your right mind no proof of any discerning profundity.

There are two primary types of Hermetic literature, central theme the "popular occultist" texts abstruse the "philosophical" texts of nobility Corpus Hermeticum. These categories especially viewed by sceptics as pristine innovations that would scarcely have to one`s name been recognised by Roman origin readers (Copenhaver 1992:xxxii).

Both categories relate to a common atmosphere. Magic, astrology, and alchemy rush included in the popular shaman array of fascinations.

In relation elect Dhu'l Nun, we do sob know if he was common with any texts of honourableness Corpus Hermeticum. In his distribute, there was no knowledge persuade somebody to buy their history.

That corpus became celebrated by enthusiasts as trim timeless archaic testimony to ethics Egyptian mysteries. In fact, maladroit thumbs down d proof exists that Hermetic texts mediate any reliable theology be in the region of the diverse Pharaonic eras prochronism the Macedonian conquest. Some Imperviable texts may conceivably have diversity origin in the Ptolemaic year, perhaps as early as position fourth century BC (Copenhaver 1992:xvi).

The Hellenistic filter, imparting unmixed Roman era complexion to Thoth, passed muster as Dynastic materiality until Isaac Casaubon (1559-1614) disclosed that the Corpus Hermeticum was a late improvisation. This standard scholar and philologist proved turn the Corpus could not own been composed earlier than primacy first century CE.

Casaubon detected scriptural, Jewish and Christian language reprove ideas, thus anticipating the knowledge of such modern experts significance C.

H. Dodd. He gnome Greek diction too abstract get at be early, Greek etymologies essential puns impossible in a decoding from Egyptian, historical references very last doctrinal views that required unembellished much later date than habitually supposed. (Copenhaver 1992:introduction page l)

More recently, an argument from unembellished British scholar urged that Neoplatonism was so much "in integrity air" during the life put a stop to Dhu'l Nun that he oxidize have been influenced by that tradition (section 16 below).

Thither is no proof in defer respect. If the Nubian proto-Sufi was familiar with any Adherent works, we do not report to which corpus, whether the Plotinian or the Iamblichean. The insufficiency of textual clarity in government era would have entailed curb for many investigators.In the Islamic world, Plotinus was revived close to the ninth century in adroit translation confused with Aristotle (i.e., the so-called Theology of Aristotle).

10.

Zosimos of Panopolis

Zosimos (circa Ccc CE or later) is much described as a Greek alchemist, which can be misleading. Powder was apparently a fourth c Christian savant with a resonant commitment to Democritus. “Zosimos should have been conceived primarily slightly a Christian scholar whose discriminating background included Hermetic, Jewish topmost Platonic literature” (Dufault 2019:117).

Rulership patron was a wealthy bride named Theosobeia. In three epistles to her, Zosimos criticised rivals in alchemy, describing them pass for magoi (magicians) and demon-worshippers, extent equating their inferior methods surrender Egyptian temple practices (ibid:93ff).

This unorthodox Christian scholar believed “tinctorial recipes concealed divine knowledge cranium that they were amenable divulge allegorical interpretation” (ibid:93).

He hired the theme of gold transformation “to discuss eschatological self-transformation” (ibid:115). The objective was a peaceful afterlife.

His treatise On Copper duct on the Working of Copper is extant in a 15th century Syriac manuscript. “Most recipes from this book appear come within reach of have been taken from say publicly Egyptian art of preparing party statues; while Zosimos discusses that art, he also distances mortal physically from the cult of significance statues” (ibid:125).

Zosimos presents rival Nielos as an enthusiast of the Egyptian statues; picture rival suffered from a “lack of intellect” and enjoined cap disciples to “know thyself.” Range well known phrase was visibly considered a rhetorical ploy expose this instance. Those practitioners surviving “after the abandonment of church cults were ignorant” (ibid:131).

In rulership Final Abstinence, Zosimos is apparently critical of Egyptian deities.

“The gods of the Egyptian temples had stolen control over description ancient tinctorial art a eat crow time ago and had lured their priests into sacrificing stand your ground them. In exchange, the priests received success in a adulterate form of alchemy” (ibid:137). Explain the same work, Zosimos credits Democritus with a unique remark applicability to ancient tinctures (ibid:131).

Hellene philosophy was here superior loom the temple distraction.

The sage Zosimos opposed magic and magic. “Both Zosimos and Porphyry argued that philosophers should avoid descent sacrifice or ritualistic means drawback produce the return of interpretation soul to the divine” (ibid:140).

Dhu’l Nun is supposed (by some pro-Hermetic commentators) to imitate been a successor of chemistry as taught by Zosimos. Convoy instance, “Dhu’l Nun clearly explicit in the same line take away tradition as Zosimos” (Kingsley 1995:390 note 56). If so, expand the Nubian may similarly snigger considered an anti-theurgist with well-defined reservations about magic.

What Zosimos really taught is often wanting in books relating to chemistry. The obscurity has assisted broad confusion. Zosimos was not top-hole typical Hermeticist and nor expert typical Christian. At the alteration period between Hellenism and Faith, many older beliefs were importunate credited by converts to position new religion.

The opponent Nielos was evidently a Hermetic enthusiast, unembellished type of theurgist in tiara regard for ritually empowered sudden “animated” statues of the veranda gallery that were tended by Afrasian priests.

In contrast, the tinctorial recipes are thought to own originated in artisan circles, specified as those who made glory gold for ancient Egyptian statues and other works of handiwork. The metallurgical recipes received detail “esoteric” interpretation from systematisers, who must often have benefited outlandish wealthy patrons desiring to identify the code.

The allegorical exercise contrasts with those alchemists who adopted an experimental approach, infer instance, Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (d.925). Many centuries later, Denizen alchemy was superseded by chemistry.

11.  A  Reputed  Student  of Alchemy/Medicine

Dhu'l Nun is reputed to take studied alchemy and medicine, object very difficult to confirm. Alchemical factory attributed to him are advised doubtful or spurious by tedious experts.

(27) The channels designate “alchemy, medicine, magic” are then bracketed together in the interest of non-Sufi studies. Magical spells or amulets appear in Christian medical texts, a survival unearth earlier Egyptian idioms. "In magnanimity ancient Mediterranean, as in repeat other times and places, nobility line between the two [medical and magical] was often do fine" (Coptic Magical Papyri, 2019).

Early Greek alchemical works portion strong links with medicine, boss connection which is less interpret in relation to Islamic chemistry, save for the outstanding approach of Abu Bakr Mhd ibn Zakariya al-Razi (865-925), the Persian physician and alchemist who placid the extensive Kitab al-Hawi, swell major Arabic work on make better.

At this period, scientific cleverness was certainly increasing amongst Muslims. The Greek medical compendia apparent Alexandria were translated into Semitic during the ninth century, turn out incorporated into new medical encyclopaedias. Coptic physicians also existed; undeniable early Coptic medical manuscript provides over 200 prescriptions, with negation spells or incantations (W.

Heed. Dawson, Egyptian Medicine Under righteousness Copts, 1923).

Arabic medical texts received considerable input from both Jewish and Coptic communities expect Egypt. The relatively low contour Coptic medical texts gained diversified media such as ostraca, sedge, and paper (Richter 2016).

That discovery has been made renovate the face of accusations take too lightly a disinclination to learning amid the Copts. Not all Christian literature was religious.

At implication unknown date, Dhu’l Nun became a traveller and ascetic, unfriendly in different countries, perhaps as well as Iran. This does not aim that he never studied chemistry or medicine in his prematurely life, or even during sovereign travels.

One can only assert the possibility with known developments at that period. “It review only with the Abbasid monarch al-Mamun (r.813-833) that scholarly remedy was revived and saved liberate yourself from oblivion” (Biesterfeldt 2010:66). The under attack in Egypt is more hide, save in relation to Christian texts. Only remnants survive remind you of an extensive Coptic medical scholarship, deriving from Coptic monasteries(M.

Krause, Coptic Medical Papyri).

A expenditure that the Nubian was "a mystic and alchemist who tired his entire life in Akhmim" is in contradiction to Fustat references emphasised by some scholars (cf. Richter 2015:167, citing Acclamation. MacCoull, Coptic Alchemy and Origin Technology in Islamic Egypt, 1993, suggesting a link between chemistry and the textile craft admire Akhmim).At Jeme, a number manage magical and medical texts were in currency, both in Christian and Greek, during the specifically Islamic period.

"Numerous school crucial educational texts" from that amount to Theban sector include "complex controlled and literary exercises" (Wilfong 2002:21-22). If the Nubian was lingually agile, he could have anachronistic well educated by cultivating Egyptian acquaintances.

The need for caution, what because consulting many reports and assumptions, should be axiomatic for common man historian.

This consideration attends expansive issue which has received gigantic scholarly attention for many age. The demise of the Conqueror Library later surfaced in gay European discussion from Gibbon at the. The fact that differences do admin reporting still exist in character twenty-first century is testimony difficulty the need for due circumstances even concerning well known subjects, let alone those with spruce more obscure profile.

A strongly open contention is that the Conqueror library was burned by high-mindedness Arab army in 642 Flat, when Roman rule ended.

Position earliest version of this accusation dates to 1198 CE, forthcoming from the physician and globetrotter Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi, who succinctly mentions “the bookstore which was burnt by Amr, by make of Caliph Umar” (Qassem 2008:207). That theme has been advised a fabrication. “This report cannot be taken seriously as no-win situation is undocumented, besides stating wrong historical facts” (ibid).

The story line of burned books achieved first-class longer version from the out of al-Qifti (d.1248), who was copied in this respect from one side to the ot the influential Syriac Bishop Hildebrand Bar Hebraeus, spreading the news to Europe. According to further critical interpretation, the fiction cannot be traced earlier than these three sources, at a ahead when trends in Islamic field were changing for the shoddier.

The anti-scientific and anti-philosophical tendencies were then mounting. In fact, the early administration of Islamic Egypt preserved the literary tradition of the country, apparently containing what had survived from nobleness Alexandrian Library, which had archaic destroyed long before in yoke separate episodes that were centuries apart.

The war between Julius Caesar and Ptolemy resulted inconsequential catastrophe for the Alexandrian Reading at 48 BC, when go wool-gathering royal institution was “almost certainly” burned accidentally (El-Abbadi 1990 turf 2004). This library held a-one vast number of Greek, Canaanitic, and Mesopotamian scrolls.

Much late, Christian demolition of the Serapeum, a temple at Alexandria, debauched an important extension to honesty same library. That event occurred when the Emperior Theodosius Hilarious banned pagan worship in 391 CE.

Over two centuries later, dignity Arab general Amr ibn al-As (573-664) led the Muslim foray. During the reign of Kalif Umar, Amr became the contemporary governor of Egypt, gaining splendid reputation for justice.

He plain-spoken not permit the Islamic soldiers to destroy or ravage. "The tale that he [Amr] unqualified the famous library at Town burned is fictitious, appearing offend hundred years later" (Marsot 2007:4). A recent report from probity British Library informs: “Medical trip philosophical instruction seems to receive continued in Alexandria for excellent than a century after authority Muslim conquest” (Aileen Das, Greek Philosophy and Medicine).

The Caliph Umar (rgd.

634-644) prohibited any Semite from owning land in Egypt; no land could be confiscated from the natives. The incursive Muslims relied on poll-tax (jizya). During subsequent Islamic reigns, rectitude Copts revolted against increasing tax and hardship, meeting with remorseless repression. A number of Copts then converted from Christianity consent to Islam in the hope jurisdiction escaping oppression (Marsot 2007:4).

The successful general Amr maintained the Christian bureaucracy of Egypt and additionally founded Fustat, a new section where he acquired considerable means.

The consequent frictions and disharmony within Islam aggravated the narrows between Arab Muslims and Copts. At distant Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphs and their courtiers erred extensive riches. The first Abbasid Caliph, Abu Abbas as-Saffah (rgd. 750-754 CE), ruthlessly eliminated rule rivals, who included the Dynasty predecessors.

“The wars within greatness caliphate during the early Abbasid period are now deemed great more disruptive than the Islamic conquests” (Mavroudi 2014:298). (28)

These trends were resisted by the widespread ascetic population, of varied temperament. Their ranks included Dhu’l Vicar al-Misri, who was remembered intend a distinctive contribution, attended unresponsive to an unfortunate lack of verifiable documentation.


12.  The  Sufi  Gnostic

During the first century of Abbasid rule, ascetic renunciation was far-flung, but not forming any comparable movement (Karamustafa 2007:1). Different trends were in operation. One variant says: “By the early ordinal century Sufism had developed implant a quest of isolated dispersed ascetics into a religious movement” (Lapidus 1988:115).

This phenomenon has many blanks in factual naked truth, the basic accounts being abounding with anecdotes.

Some Arabic sources forcibly associate Dhu'l Nun with Fustat (Old Cairo), a garrison city of the Delta which replaced Alexandria as the capital give an account of Egypt. This thriving city obviously became the base, or spiteful, of Dhu’l Nun for character remainder of his life.

Goodness date of his move northerly from Akhmim is elusive.

Fustat was built soon after honourableness Arab conquest in 641 Goodwill. This multicultural city included Jews and Christians. In 751 nobility Abbasid dynasty started a creative military suburb called al-Askar ("the army"). This site was in the early stages planned as a separate nation, in the interests of dynastic control.

The plan failed. Al-Askar eventually merged with Fustat, creating a large metropolis by nobleness Tulunid era commencing 868. Port was later founded nearby, work out built to the north play a role the late tenth century, at the end of the day absorbing Fustat (today Old Cairo).

A discrepancy is apparent in dissimilar versions of the skeletal history.

Dhu’l Nun  is said abut have received his early doctrinal education in Syria and Peninsula, even studying with the creator of the Maliki law nursery school, namely Malik ibn Anas (Knysh 2000:40). This legist died unite 795 at Medina. He was therefore too early a pat for the Nubian, unless glory latter was born much before than his generally accepted datemark in the 790s.

Dhu’l Abstinent is credited as transmitting encypher (hadith) from the Maliki framer via intermediaries. This role round canonical piety is at probability with the alternative view resembling his early life in manner of speaking of a polymathic encounter nervousness Hermetic subjects, basically alchemy. “These connections have proved a chief source of embarrassment for those interested in maintaining the simply Islamic nature of Sufism” (Kingsley 1995:389).

A demarcation, between interests of his early career squeeze his later role, is mega rarely referred to.

At awful point Dhu'l Nun adopted unembellished ascetic life; he is coeval to have travelled in Northern Africa, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, City, and even Iran. He esteem said to have visited influence Muslim ascetics on Mount Lukkam, near Antioch.

According to illustriousness tenth century report of Kalabadhi, he encountered a female abstainer in Syria who criticised loftiness lifestyle of affluent town-dwellers. Unadulterated later variant of this narration is found in Hujwiri's Kashf al-Mahjub, which describes an chance upon during a journey from Jerusalem to Egypt. The matriarch tyrannize a staff and wore great woollen garment of the inspiration that became closely associated appear Sufis.

(29)

Key events were rendering two stigmatisations of Dhu'l Monk as a heretic (section 1 above). The information is subsequent, also inflated with regard scolding the intervention of the Calif al-Mutawakkil (rgd 847-861). (30) Birth historian al-Khatib, in his History of Baghdad, reports that Mutawakkil gained respect for the African, acquitted him, and asked him to describe sainthood.

The allocution attributed to Dhu'l Nun (31) is an embellishment.

The Caliph al-Mutawakkil reverse the policies of his settle, dispensing with the Mutazili idea and the associated inquisition. Justness earlier situation had buttressed "the religious importance of the Caliph" by implying that the Quran was "subject to authoritative Caliphal interpretation." (32) This political scheme dated back to the unknown of al-Mamun (813-833), who essential the Mutazili doctrines and initiated the inquisition.

Mamun's calculating benefit for the Mutazili right selfdiscipline coincided with his crushing have a phobia about the revolt in Egypt amid the discontented peasantry. The bleak privileged Arab settlers made familiar cause with the subordinated Copts at that time. These dissidents lost to the imperial system, which diverted Egyptian revenue visit Baghdad, a disastrous policy afflicting the ruin of agriculture tenuous the Nile valley.

(33)

Al-Dhahabi (d.c.1350), an Arab historian and scholar of Damascus, reiterated the vocal version of Dhu'l Nun's sacrilege, in terms of upholding magnanimity conservative religious view that nobleness Quran was uncreated. In keep an eye on of other details, one suspects that the heresy possessed topping deeper content which escaped remembrance.

This matter is independent exert a pull on the queries relating to disentangle esoteric commentary on the Quran ascribed to Jafar Sadiq. Dhu'l Nun is associated with that book in an editorial influence. That commentary (tafsir) was accommodated to a Shi'i perspective. (34)

Upon his return to Egypt cause the collapse of Iraq, Dhu'l Nun settled wrap up Giza (then a village), very different from far south of Fustat.

Powder was now living in picture shadow of the Old Country Pyramids and the Sphinx. Justness unknown views of Dhu'l Rector about those monuments might maintain been more convincing than detestable fantasies of Western occultists whitehead recent times. After his wealth with the establishment, the Ethnos mystic may have regarded well in rural Giza as clean up safety precaution against urban trespass.

His death occurred at City. His tombstone has been be cast, located in one of decency cemeteries at Old Cairo. (35)

The Giza Pyramids

The tenth century Moslem annalist Kalabadhi reported the defence of Dhu'l Nun to calligraphic question concerning the gnostic ideal: "He [the gnostic] is on the rocks man who, being with them, is yet apart from them" (Arberry 1935:140).

This Arabic idea is reminiscent of a Iranian phrase later favoured by awful Sufis, translated as: "Be convoluted the world but not weekend away the world."

The sources credit Dhu'l Nun with a large hand out of disciples in tasawwuf (Sufism). Some Sufi annalists (including Sulami and Qushayri) affirm that pooled of his disciples was Sahl al-Tustari (d.896), an Iranian strange Ahwaz who also became distinguished in Sufism.

Another early spring reported that Tustari visited Empire, (36) the details being fragmentary.

A late medieval monograph, attributed get in touch with the Egyptian polymath al-Suyuti (d.1505), is a compilation of formerly materials. That memorial breaks leave behind into seven sections, revealing cramped emphases attendant upon the canonization of Dhu'l Nun in Mysticism.

The presentation comprises (1) illustriousness miracles of Dhu'l Nun (2) his mystical career (3) her highness sayings (4) his prayers (5) his encounter with the Khalifah al-Mutawakkil (6) his poems (7) a collection of the hadith (traditions of the prophet) genetic by him.

The religio-mystical poetry ascribed to the subject has antediluvian judged authentic by some scholars.

Whereas the attributed alchemical data have been considered discrepant better the practice of Sufism. High-mindedness French scholar Louis Massignon was influential, via his "Islamic theory" of Sufism, in casting have no faith in upon the accounts of Dhu'l Nun by Islamic historians duct bibliographers, instead favouring the authorized annals of Sufism.

(37)Unfortunately, both of these categories of dissemination reveal limitations and legendary elements.

The gulf between religiosity and exponent (arif) psychology is indicated slash a reported saying of Dhu'l Nun: "Ordinary men repent revenue their sins, but the wrap up repent of their heedlessness." (38) The Arabic term ghafla (heedlessness) was inverse to sincerity (sidq), a key term in initially Sufi texts.

According to integrity Dhu'l Nun transmission: "Sincerity (sidq) is a divine sword which cuts all bonds." (39) Simple related emphasis of this African mystic was avoidance of impractical pretension to gnosis, a weak spot that was apparently common. Other of his sayings reads:

Contrary term paper those who externalise their avoidance and boast of their nonmaterialistic accomplishments, the true mystic hides his spiritual achievements from nobleness eyes of others.

(40)

The Ethnos warned that the practice succeed asceticism should not become marvellous livelihood. The temptation to span form of vanity is presentday under discussion. Another of consummate sayings is: “Man’s fiercest conflicting is the nafs, his negligent self or ego.” The nafs had to be subdued, else the problem could magnify be familiar with of control in the austere proud of his supposed elevation.

In contrast, the genuine miraculous was retiring, always maintaining noiselessness, and avoiding disputes. (41)

Another sphere also met with the condemnation of Dhu’l Nun. In fastidious number of his extant beliefs, he criticises the ulama (religious leaders) and hadith scholars who boasted of their knowledge.

Seeking reputation and a high social prominence, and using their religious see to as a means for accomplishment worldly benefits, these ulama bear out always keen on cooperating convene the political authorities.

(Ebstein 2014:596)

13.   Canonical  Annals  of  Sufism

The influential annalists of Sufism implication the career of Dhu'l Parson in a conventional “orthodox Sufi” manner. A traditionist commentator level-headed Abu Nuaym al-Isfahani (948-1038), who included Dhu'l Nun in realm lengthy Hilyat al-Awliya.

He upfront not neglect reference to honourableness belief in reading hieroglyphs. Righteousness overall strategy of Abu Nuaym has aroused comment. He "intended to integrate the Sufi boost into orthodox traditionist Islam" (W. Madelung, "Abu Noaym al-Esfahani," Physical Iranica). He supplied an describe multi-volume "pious genealogy" for Mysticism, beginning with the first duo Caliphs, while omitting reference cause somebody to Hallaj, a controversial mystic explain significance.

Abu Nuaym was scribble literary works as a traditionist and slogan as a Sufi. (42) Coordination to religious orthodoxy was graceful general development at this copy out, commencing in the tenth century.

The Sufi annalists do not pigs us with a biography give a rough idea Dhu’l Nun. Instead, fleeting references and anecdotes comprise his hagiographical profile, leaving many quandaries infer the historical approach.

His doctrine receive more attention than set of scales other factor. Many of king dicta were relayed by picture Iranian exegetes Abu Nasr Sarraj, Sulami, Qushayri, and Ansari. Excellence sparse narrative complement is trying by presumed miracles (karamat). Excellence twelfth century Iranian poet Athar of Nishapur embellished anecdotes in ruler famous Tazkhirat al-Awliya (Memorial find time for the Saints).

Some of these fragmentary reports give the subject-matter a high rating, apparently for he was regarded as characteristic innovator in gnosis. Hujwiri (eleventh century) remarks that this "son of a Nubian" was "one of the best" Sufi exemplars. The commentator adds that leadership people of Egypt did believe in Dhu'l Nun \'til after his death, a down-to-earth detail.

However, Hujwiri proceeds purify give a rather pious reminder for the change in hand over opinion, including the claim ramble religiously significant words were inaugurate inscribed on the forehead acquire his corpse. (43) There decay no reference to hieroglyphs, chemistry, or the Akhmim environment. Fustat is similarly amorphous.

Long after, creepycrawly distant Herat, Jami (fifteenth century) awarded Dhu'l Nun high kudos in his Nafahat al-Uns.

That famous Persian writer describes distinction Egyptian as "the head very last this sect (Sufism): they (the Sufis) all descend from, person in charge are related to, him." (44) The few pages which Jami devotes to Dhu'l Nun settle in the standard idiom reveal hagiography; the anecdotes and experience do not convincingly profile 9th century events.

Dhu'l Nun decay described by Hujwiri and nakedness as a major exponent interrupt marifa (gnosis) and the Muhammadan path. Kalabadhi (tenth century) known the Egyptian being asked: "What is the end [objective] admire the gnostic?" The enigmatic return came: "When he is pass for he was where he was before he was." (45)

The learned reader begins to suspect wind the esoteric language of Dhu'l Nun al-Misri was not modification open book to his age.

However, quite apart from birth enigmatic mode, "orthodox Sufi" compilers had evidently lost contact cede a largely forgotten Egyptian surroundings. This is perhaps understandable meat that the early annalists fence Sufism were Iranians and Iraqis.

In their present form, the teaching ascribed to Dhu’l Nun cannot be said to accurately illustrate Dhu’l Nun’s very own articulate – they are rather integrity product of a long action which included both oral carriage and written-literary formulations.

(Ebstein 2014:571-572)

The general meaning conveyed need whoop be in doubt. The Egyptian gnostic “apparently adopted a give the thumbs down to attitude towards the preoccupation contemporary obsession with miracles” or karamat (Ebstein 2014:593). The relevance reminisce distracting karamat was here contradicted by Egyptian marifa and rectitude proto-Sufi struggle with nafs.

14.  Ibn  Khallikan

One of the Arabic cornucopia is Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282), a-ok qazi (legist) of Cairo humbling Damascus.

He authored a capacious collection of biographies in top Wafayat al-Ayan (Obituaries of decency Eminent). The entry on Dhu'l Nun here describes him reorganization a "celebrated saint,"and "one take away those who taught from reminiscence the Muwatta of the rabbi Malik." The Muwatta is excellent famous hadith collection compiled vulgar the traditionist Malik ibn Anas (d.795).

A complement to that orthodoxy is the statement: "Ibn Yunus says in his History, that he [Dhu'l Nun] was acquainted with philosophy and beam with elegance." (46)  This review apparently a reference to Ibn Yunus al-Muarekh (d.958), father donation the famous astronomer of Fustat, his namesake Ibn Yunus (d.1009).

The pater was a traditionist and historian who wrote space Egypt. Unfortunately, his works sincere not survive.

The allusion unobtrusively philosophy is very generalised, meet no clear context. Ibn Khallikan does not provide a autobiography of Dhu'l Nun, but on the other hand anecdotes and sayings, along touch interposed poetry.

His account evaluation free of reference to hieroglyphs or temples. The saint’s “pious exhortation” to the Caliph al-Mutawakkil is briefly mentioned. Dhu'l Nun's cue for renunciation of goodness world is described as neat as a pin miraculous event in which “the ground split open and mirror image trays came forth, one neat as a new pin gold and the other holdup silver.” History can be publication elusive in retrospective accounts.

Ibn Khallikan includes a bizarre anecdote large size a disciple of Dhu’l Abstemious.

This man departed from Empire for Baghdad, where he tense a “religious concert,” meaning sama. He died in the recreation. When news of the alteration reached Dhu’l Nun, he ornery his other disciples on a-okay walk to Baghdad, where they found the musician who difficult conducted the ill-fated concert. Concerning concert commenced.

The saint articulated a loud cry and class musician fell dead. The ideal said: “We have taken lex talionis for our companion’s death” (MacGuckin 1842:292). Ibn Khallikan then describes an associative event in rulership own earlier years, when alternative sama musician died during a-okay concert, from “ecstasy” or agitation.

The sama was very habitual by the thirteenth century, seem to be associated with certain Sufi Instruct.

This custom, far more conceal in the time of Dhu’l Nun, may have been innovated during the tenth century. Sama is evocative of both Land and Persian dispositions; the 9th century Egyptian scene is top-notch relative blank.

The sama became a feature of early Muhammadan practice, but of what nippy consisted, apart from the telling of mystical poems to effect ecstasy, it is difficult snip tell, since most writers splash out their time either attacking look after justifying, rather than describing, these "excesses." (Trimingham 1971:195)

Dhu’l Nun predated the Sufi Orders by many generations.

Well meaning scholars  like Ibn Khallikan effectively overlaid subsequent enthusiasms and idioms upon depiction pre-Sufi and proto-Sufi subject.

15.  Theory  of  Christian  Neoplatonist  Influence

Since interpretation nineteenth century, the influence go into early Sufism of Dionysius Areopagiticus has been emphasised by Religion investigators.

This theory was bonus recently urged, in relation assortment Dhu'l Nun, by the Model Catholic scholars Louis Gardet viewpoint Georges Anawati.

The Pseudo-Dionysius was composing circa 500 CE, commonly being identified as a conventual writer, possibly living in Syria. He ascribed his output email Dionysius the Areopagite, an Greek converted by the apostle Disagreeable.

His real identity is unfamiliar. His corpus has been reasoned idiosyncratic. The myth of monastic authenticity was demolished by distinction discovery that Pseudo-Dionysius substantially engaged Neoplatonist sources, especially Proclus. Dire analysts concluded that he candied Neoplatonist influences in the insignificant of official Christian intolerance; birth suggestion appeared that he was effectively a pupil of Proclus, the fifth century pagan Disciple.

However, another form of interpretation argues that Pseudo-Dionysius was fine Christian theologian disguised as calligraphic Neoplatonist, intending to master dignity pagan sources and thus give in the rival sector. (47) Mask also Damascius.

Some commentators have referred to the less prominent Writer Bar Sudaili, described as far-out Syrian Christian monk of Origenist views, an obscure figure dating to the early sixth hundred CE.

He is credited fine-tune the work in Syriac situate as TheBook of the Nonmaterial Hierotheos. Some Christian scholars be blessed with described this document rather slightingly as a "quasi-Gnostic" treatise. Yet, a translator assessed Hierotheos bit "one of the most extraordinary mystical books ever written by virtue of a Christian," adding that "no other Christian writer ever common so completely, or stated stay alive such audacity, the pantheistic philosophy." The same scholar concluded go off the Book of Hierotheos was directly or indirectly indebted give up Pseudo-Dionysius.

 (48)

The mystics amongst rectitude Eastern Christians were much closer forms of Sufism (or proto-Sufism) than the Latin church. Fine degree of compatibility with harsh early Sufi exponents is battle-cry difficult to concede. However, copy the case of Dhu'l Recluse, some have questioned the distribution to Christian sources of consummate formulation concerning the "stages, devotion and states" in the Muslim path, "perhaps under the import of the ascetic and obscure spirituality of the Oriental monks (we think of the Ladder to Paradise by St.

Can Climacus)." (49) Climacus (523-606) wrote in his ScalaParadisi about let down ascent leading by gradual beginnings to the perfection of mystic life. Other commentators have attributed to Plotinus the influence sue such conceptions, which are opprobriously difficult to ascertain in position of textual and ideological location.

Furthermore, the traditional idea renounce Dhu'l Nun was the originator of Sufi gnostic concepts does not stand the test boss due analysis. To quote above all assessment of Professor Arberry:

He [Dhu'l Nun] is generally credited bend having introduced the idea apply gnosis (marifa) into Sufism, on the other hand this would appear to note down incorrect since the conception sure occurs in the fragments conduct operations earlier ascetics.

Dhu'l Nun in your right mind ... said to have familiar the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, plus to have been familiar run off with the Hermetic wisdom. A matter of short treatises of further doubtful authenticity are attributed reveal him; his poems and prayers, so much as are unhurt of them, give a truer impression of his mode sum thought, which is marked outdo distinctly pantheistic tendencies.

(50)

16.   R. A.  Nicholson's  Neoplatonist  Theory

Reynold Far-out. Nicholson. Courtesy National Portrait Room, London

The "purist" Neoplatonist interpretation cataclysm Professor Reynold A.

Nicholson (1868-1945) argued for the influence get the picture Plotinus on Dhu'l Nun, pass up implying any direct textual capacity as a necessity for that theory. Rather, Greek Neoplatonism was "in the air" such Sufis breathed. (51)

This Cambridge scholar further referred to Dhu’l Nun, plug terms of identity, as “an alchemist and magician” (Nicholson 1906:313).

He ventured another description mock this entity as “an abstemious, philosopher, and theurgist,” one who lived “among the Christian Copts” (ibid:315). The wording implies chiefly Iamblichean orientation of theurgy degree than a Plotinian approach. Far is no convincing indication saunter Dhu’l Nun performed rituals lionize invocations at Akhmim; any limited rituals were those of Religionist Coptic priests.

From the awkward ninth century onwards, Muslim thinkers gained familiarity with Greek opinion, often via Christian scholars obtain translators. Aristotle came to remedy the most well known clout in the Islamic world, belong some extent mutated by authority teachings of Proclus and Philosopher, which passed as Aristotelian.

Circa 830 CE, the so-called Theology of Aristotle was translated bump into Arabic by the Syrian Religion Ibn Na'imah al-Himsi. Though considered to be a work inured to Aristotle, the Theologia Aristotelis run through actually a version of books IV-VI of the Enneads be alarmed about Plotinus; this redaction proved methodical amongst Muslim philosophers from interpretation time of al-Kindi (d.c.866), who was active in Baghdad.

Non-Sufi Semite sources describe Dhu'l Nun introduction a philosopher and alchemist; that factor prompted Nicholson to clear up him as a student a variety of Hellenistic science rather than Christlike Neoplatonism.(52)  It is not leak out whether Dhu'l Nun al-Misri was familiar with Greek.

Certainly, nobleness Coptic language had adopted nobility Greek alphabet. An unusual proportion of linguistic overlap occurred thump certain aspects of the Afrasian culture at this period. Distinction official language of the Islamic administration in Egypt was different from Greek to Arabic go in for the order of the Ruler in 694 CE.

The Complex (or Coptic) administrative system but survived in Egypt for a- further two centuries. No basic change seems to have occurred in the land of glory Nile prior to the entirely eighth century, when the fresh Arabisation was implemented.

The Caliphal objective was to make Semite settlers prominent in the control of Egypt, thus replacing well-organized Christian majority.

Fiscal documents disclose that during the latter bisection of the eighth century, Christian and Greek were equally variety prevalent as Arabic. Further, scold more surprisingly, Coptic and Hellene phrases, also Greek numbers, were used in official Egyptian certificate three centuries after the managerial reform was commenced.(53)

Some analysts suggest Sufism have been enthusiastic tight spot their appraisal of the Egyptian proto-Sufi.

The assertion can aptly found that Dhu'l Nun was "well versed in philosophy, injure, literature, alchemy, ancient Egyptian novel, and hieroglyphics." Furthermore, he was "the model of a resumption man." (54)  To some flattering converging likewise with Nicholson was a statement of Dr. Margaret Smith:

He [Dhu'l Nun] made thickskinned study of medicine and very of alchemy and magic charge he must have been pompous by Hellenistic teaching.

(M. Explorer, Encyclopaedia of Islam, second edn)

Others are more stringent in importance. "It is impossible to remark certain whether or not Dhu'l Nun studied medicine, alchemy, gift magic, though he is uninvited as the author of cabbalistic writings from the 9th c onward" (G. Bowering, "Du'l Buoy Mesri, Abu'l Fayz Tauban," Einstein Iranica).

17.

 The  Palacios  Version

Miguel Asvina Palacios

A contemporary of the Island scholar R. A. Nicholson was the Spanish Arabist Miguel Asvina Palacios (1871-1944). He has antediluvian criticised for his viewpoint, importance a Roman Catholic priest, suspend his approach to Islamic studies.

However, he was a bounteous commentator. Palacios wrote an inclusion on Dhu'l Nun in diadem influential book about Ibn Masarra (d.931) of Spain.

A Christianising accent is discernible in tiresome interpretations of Palacios. He supposed the Nubian ethnicity of Dhu'l Nun, plus the Thebaid ecosystem (of Akhmim), in terms model explaining "how the introduction extent Christian monastic asceticism and rot the traditional theosophical occultism close Egypt into Islam was permission to him." (55)  Both Christly and Hermetic influences were fro being discussed as operative.

Palacios observes that Akhmim was in loftiness vicinity of an event central to the Pachomian tradition.

Honourableness hermit Palamon had taught illustriousness Coptic saint Pachomius (Pakhom) various centuries before. The pupil supported a monastery at Tabennesis (some distance to the south) attach importance to the fourth century CE. Think it over is indeed an interesting geographic juxtaposition, though one which does not prove Christian influence observe Dhu'l Nun from Thebaid monks.

Another famous Pachomian monastery was in the close proximity enterprise Akhmim (Panopolis), meaning the Pale Monastery (section 3 above). Quieten, the same town has as well been viewed as the originating milieu for the Hermetic church of the Graeco-Roman period; that development had nothing to shindig with Christianity. The outlook out-and-out Palacios may be gleaned take the stones out of the following:

All the biographers depose Dhu'l Nun agree that explicit was a very austere abstainer who submitted his body optimism the most rigorous mortifications.

Stylishness lived continually in imitation have a high regard for the Christian 'vagabonds,' wandering pillage the deserts of Nitria, with the banks of the River, on the beaches of Empire, and through the mountains honor Lebanon. He searched everywhere cause teachers.... But more than make illegal ascetic, he is pictured tempt a mystic or ecstatic Muslim, the first (together with leadership Persian Abu Yazid al-Bistami) house be considered as such.

(56)

The same scholar mentions the small reference of Ibn Khallikan check in the Sufi teacher of Dhu'l Nun, an obscure entity entitled as Shaqran al-Abid, meaning Shaqran the ascetic. Palacios suggests delay Shaqran might have been "an ascetic of Christian lineage." Regulate, that is speculation; nevertheless, clever Coptic identity is plausible.

Not at home, there is an earlier choice to a Maliki traditionist pass for a teacher of Dhu'l Abstemious, an attribution with chronological difficulties.Sadun of Cairo is also contemporary as a mentor. However, rectitude "real masters" of Dhu'l Abstemious appear to have been Shaqran al-Abid and Israfil al-Maghribi (O'Donnell 2006:74).

Palacios reflected consider it Akhmim had the repute exert a pull on being an "ancient centre be unable to find the esoteric sciences." The Semite tradition attributed to Dhu'l Rector a knowledge of alchemy ray magic, "the Hermetic art lay into deciphering the hieroglyphs," and righteousness interpretation of dreams.

Palacios adds that the subject's tuition and fame as a Moslem saint provoked the envy spick and span legists and aroused fear interject the civil authorities. His "ideas about the ecstatic union" were condemned as heretical; he was subsequently acquitted. (57)  

The Romance scholar accented a reference snatch al-Faradi, a biographer of Ibn Masarra (883-931), the Andalusian hidden.

Faradi compared Dhu'l Nun extinct Ibn Masarra (Palacios 1978:86-87). Palacios tended to construct a suggest equation between the two census, employing this for a questionable theory in which doctrines catch the marginalised influence dubbed Pseudo-Empedocles became the School of Ibn Masarra. The same Andalusian has been variously described as systematic Mutazili theologian, a Fatimid minister, a Neoplatonist philosopher, and in relation to variant identities (Stroumsa 2006:99-100).

In the "Pseudo-Empedoclean" theory of Palacios, Dhu'l Nun is described in the same way a theurgist who influenced Ibn Masarra, creating a bridge famine "the Hermetic chain of thought" in the "Almerian Sufi school" (Palacios 1978:128). This view has been strongly contested. There not bad no firm evidence for neat as a pin theurgistic Dhu'l Nun, while depiction nature of Andalusian mysticism go over the main points portrayed in a different effect (Ebstein 2014).

18.  Leaven  of  the  Pythagoreans

The "Islamic Neoplatonist" break of Dhu'l Nun al-Misri was briefly and allusively expressed newborn the ishraqi philosopher Shihab al-Din Yahya Suhrawardi (d.1191). In Arabic work Kitab al-mashari wa'l mutarahat, Suhrawardi refers to dialect trig spiritual genealogy including Empedocles, Philosopher, and Plato, figures who drain here ultimately linked to Mercury, the "father of philosophers" (walid al-hukama).

The "leaven of nobility Pythagoreans" devolved upon the "brother of Ikhmim," namely Dhu'l Self-denier (and, via him, to Sahl al-Tustari).

The Arabic works short vacation Suhrawardi refer to two hold your horses of transmission, the other existence the Iranian branch of integrity "leaven" associated with the Sufis Abu Yazid Bistami, Hallaj, most important Kharaqani.

In the ishraqi format, Dhu'l Nun is intimation Islamic NeoPythagorean and Neoplatonist, alliance to Pythagoras, Plato (or Plotinus), and the ancient Egyptians remit a "philosophical genealogy," emphasised through Suhrawardi in terms of organized continuing ancient wisdom spread amid different nations. (58) The instant of "eternal leaven" (al-hamirat al-azaliyya) referred to a wisdom rite which Suhrawardi claimed to inherit.

This very unusual pedigree has regular substantially differing assessments.

Some hypothesis the genealogy as a absolute fiction unique to Suhrawardi, from the past others credit an unusual argue which, though incorporating the conjectural Hermes, nevertheless moves outside Hermeticism and also Islamic convention. Probity standard format of silsila (lineage), adopted by the Sufi Tell, specified root derivation from description prophet Muhammad.

In contrast, Suhrawardi defers to Greek philosophy challenging the Hermetic figurehead in joining to early Sufism.

Concerning the isnad (chain of transmitters) celebrated locked in Sufi silsila beliefs, a connoisseur has observed:

The names of firm of these early masters were incorporated in the mystical isnads of the tariqas (ways).

Glory key figure in the hold your horses of most tariqas is Abu’l Qasim al-Junaid (d.910), yet Dhu’n-Nun al-Misri, though continually quoted charge support of mystical thought, esteem missing from the isnads. (Trimingham 1971:12)

Suhrawardi countered the omission birdcage his unorthodox isnad.

His inclusionist tactic can be differently understood. He did not elevate Junaid, a figurehead of the Bagdad school, instead favouring Hallaj, concerning entity generally ignored in silsila preferences.

Influenced by al-Qifti, one inkling states: "Dhu'l Nun was slightly much an alchemist as unadulterated Sufi." (59) The equation enquiry in doubt.

The Coptic obtain Islamic traditions of alchemy give in Akhmim are difficult to ignore; however, the issue of Dhu’l Nun as an alchemist has not been resolved. Professor Walbridge cites the suggestion of Fowden that Panopolis (Akhmim) was righteousness centre of a cult canada display the Corpus Hermeticum during nobleness early Christian era.

The called "Hermetica Belt" geographically features Panopolis in between Nag Hammadi ray Hermopolis. At Nag Hammadi was discovered the now celebrated Unorthodoxy library (including three Hermetic texts), while Hermopolis was the adventure setting for the supposed mausoleum of Hermes Trismegistus, associated colleague Thoth.

(60) None of these associations establish the lifestyle finish output of Dhu’l Nun many centuries later.

The strong convergence in the middle of mysticism and magic, in primacy pre-Islamic Hermetic mindset, is unsettling. The famous Hermetic text Asclepius is noted for theurgistic passages in which the objective was to manipulate a god be selected for a statue.

Such ideas assuredly reflected tendencies of the antique Egyptian priesthoods. Professor Brian Owner. Copenhaver has observed:

Oddly adequate, it was the alchemist Zosimos who took the strongest bow to against magic of any 1 author, describing it as uncomplicated blunt tool useless for in truth that need immaterial instruments.

(61)

Zosimos of Panopolis (circa 300 CE) was in conflict with a-okay Hermetic rival whom he enrolment with Egyptian statues of illustriousness gods (Dufault 2019:93ff). See reduce 9 above. Zosimos reflected: "Hermes accuses even magic, saying think about it the spiritual man who has come to know himself has no need to direct anything through magic, even if pipe is regarded as good." (62)

Magic surfaced again in Arab Hermeticism.

Suhrawardi does not focus gaze at magic, unlike some other authors in Arabic. Suhrawardi does howl represent alchemy, but a break of Neoplatonism becoming known in the same way ishraq.

One interpretation of the Suhrawardi isnad has been strongly iffy. In a brief cameo shape, Peter Kingsley interprets Dhu’l Preacher in the context of realm (Kingsley’s) version of Empedocles (Kingsley 1995:388-390).

Magic is included remove the overall celebration, extending fit in a glorification of Iamblichean theurgy:

Neoplatonic theurgists were known considerably magicians and considered capable troupe just of extracting men’s souls from their bodies but besides of returning them, just intend Empedocles; they were considered effective to make rain and put up with plagues, again just like Empedocles; they had visionary encounters allow Hecate and in their rituals they used or actually wore the secret symbola of high-mindedness gods, just like the Philosopher of legend; and they connected the greatest importance to grandeur process of ritual immortalisation, apparently preceded by a sequence quite a few death and rebirth, just trade in we find in early Mathematician circles and on the together related gold plates.

(63)

Enthusiasm suggest theurgy can eclipse historical considerations of reality. Neither Suhrawardi faint Dhu’l Nun were Empedoclean defeat Iamblichean theurgists. Suhrawardi was top-notch Muslim Neoplatonist philosopher with skilful basically rational approach, while crediting intuitive abilities.

Dhu’l Nun was a far more obscure proto-Sufi mystic who may have esoteric close connection with Christian Copts in the Akhmim locale; noteworthy might have been familiar region Coptic alchemical literature, if renounce existed in his day. Past his later Fustat phase, why not? was evidently more concerned exempt negotiating the nafs (personality) fish story than wearing symbols of depiction gods in ritual performances.

(64)

Kevin R. D. Shepherd

May 2010(modified May-June 2020)

 

ANNOTATIONS

(1)     Michael Ebstein, "Du'l Abstainer al-Misri and Early Islamic Theology, " Arabica (2014) 61:559-612, possessor.

564.

(2)     Ebstein, art. cit., pp. 564-66, commenting that “the anecdotes concerning the dialogue between Du'l Nun and al-Mutawakkil cannot rectify taken at face value.”

(3)      Arthur J. Arberry, trans., Muslim Saints and Mystics: Episodes from the Tadhkirat al-Auliya through Farid al-Din Attar (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966), holder.

87.  

(4)      Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (University spectacle North Carolina Press, 1975), pp. 42-3. Cf. Alexander Knysh, Islamic Mysticism: A Short History (Leiden: Brill, 2000), pp. 39-41. Cf. Patrick O. Donnell, "Dhu'l Ascetic al-Misri" (74-76) in Oliver Leaman, ed., The Biographical Encyclopaedia racket Islamic Philosophy (London: Bloomsbury Learned, 2006).

Cf. Jawid Mojaddedi, "Dhu l-Nun Abu l-Fayd al-Misri," Encyclopaedia of Islam, third edn (online).

(5)       Reynold A. Nicholson, A Literary History of the Arabs (second edn, Cambridge University Repress, 1930), p. 389.

Nicholson challenging arrived at this conclusion hem in "A Historical Enquiry Concerning leadership Origin and Development of Sufism," Journal of theRoyal Asiatic Society (1906), 303-348, where he describes the father of Dhu'l Abstemious as a native of Nubia or of Akhmim, adopted offspring the Quraysh. Cf. Ebstein 2014:563, stating: "His father was natty Nubian," whose name is terrestrial as Ibrahim or Ahmad. Cf.

Schimmel 1975:42, who says "born of Nubian parents." Cf. Knysh 2000:40, giving the description: "Born of a Nubian family trim Akhmim." Cf. Van Minnen 2016:70, for a description as "the son of a converted Ethnos slave from Panopolis." Cf. Lead, Meaning in Anthropos (Cambridge: Anthropographia, 1991), p.

109, describing Dhu'l Nun as "a Nubian succeed half-Nubian," here deferring to credible Coptic maternal ancestry, also victualling arrangement a context of polymathy shatterproof to some European racist biases. "I maintain that very Europeans of the nineteenth c equalled the polymath acuity lay into the ninth century dissenter Dhu'l Nun al-Misri" (ibid.).

This stiff statement was made in meet to the aspersion of Philosopher de Gobineau that "the Denizen cannot hope to civilise excellence negro."

(6)       Nicolas Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, trans. Ian Shaw (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), p.

89, referring tip the wealth of local rulers being "apparent in the local necropolises at Cusae, Akhmim, Town, Edfu and Elephantine."See also Naguib Kanawati et al, The Outcrop Tombs of El-Hawaish: The Churchyard of Akhmim (10 vols, Sydney: Macquarie University, 1980-1992).There are kill 800 rock cut tombs comatose the mountain of Al-Hawaish, probity ancient necropolis of Akhmim.

Honesty earliest date to the Onefifth Dynasty of the Old Monarchy. Many of these tombs sentry uninscribed.See also Louise Blanke,

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